tihvary  of  trhe  theological  ^tminavy 

PRINCETON  •  NEW  JERSEY 


PRESENTED  BY 

the  Estate  of 
Harold  McAfee  Robinson,  D.D. 

BV  4023  . §7  1916  v . 2  ^.1 
Briggs,  Charles  Augustus, 

1841-1913. 
History  of  the  study  of 

theology 


^r^Tv-J^t^ 


^S^-T-ty 


^ 


yiX-^jt_ 


HISTORY   OF  THE 
STUDY   OF   THEOLOGY 


STUDIES  IN  THEOLOGY 

limo,  cloth.    15  cents  net  per  vol. 


NOW  READY 
A  Critical  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament 

By  Arthur  Samxtel  Peake,  D.D. 
taith  and  its  Psychology 

By  the  Rev.  WaLiAM  R.  Inge,  D.D. 

PYiilosophy  and  Religion 

By  the  Rev.  Hastings  Rashdall,  D.Litt.  (Ozon), 
D.C.L.  (Durham),  F.B.A. 

Revelation  and  Inspiration 

By  the  Rev.  James  Orr,  D.D. 

Christianity  and  Social  Questions 

By  the  Rev.  William  Cunningham,  D.D.,  F.B.A. 
Christian  Thought  to  the  Reformation 

By  Herbert  B.  Workman,  D.Litt. 
Protestant  Thought  Before  Kant 

By  A.  C.  McGiffert,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

An  Outline  of  the  History  of  Christian  Thought 
Since  Kant 

By  Edward  Caldwell  Moore,  D.D. 

The  Christian  Hope:  A  Study  in  the  Doctrine  of 
Immortality 

By  William  Adams  Brown,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

The  Theology  of  the  Gospels 

By  the  Rev.  James  Moffatt,  D.D.,  D.Litt. 

The  Text  and  Canon  of  the  New  Testament 

By  Alexander  Souter,  D.Litt. 

A  Critical  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament 

By  the  Rev.  George  Buchanan  Gray,  D.D.,  D.Litt. 

A  Handbook  of  Christian  Apologetic* 
By  Alfred  Ernest  Gar  vie,  M.A.,  D.D. 

Gospel  Origins 

By  the  Rev.  William  West  Holdsworth,  MA. 

The  Religious  Ideas  of  the  Old  Testament 

By  H.  Wheeler  Robinson,  M.A. 

Christianity  and  Sin 

By  Robert  Mackintosh,  D.D. 

Christianity  and  Ethics 

By  Archibald  B.  D.  Alexander,  M.A.,  D.D. 

The  Environment  of  Early  Christianity 

By  S.  Angus,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

The  Holy  Spirit  in  Thought  and  Experience 

By  T.  Rees,  M.A. 

The  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement 

By  J.  K.  MozLEY,  M.A. 

'History  of  the  Study  of  Theology.     2  Vols. 
By  Charles  Augustus  Briggs,  D.D.,  D.Litt. 


HISTORY  OF  T 


dUL  10  ^ 

STUDY  OF  THEOLOa 

BY 

CHARLES  AUGUSTUS   BRIGGS 

D.D.,   D.LITT. 

Prepared  for  Publication  by  his  Daughter 
EMILIE   GRACE   BRIGGS,    B.D. 

VOL.  II. 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 
1916 


Published  igr6 


All  rights  reserved 


CONTENTS 

PART   I 

THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY  IN  THE 
MIDDLE  AGES 

CHAP.  PA.OB 

I.    THE  STUDY   OF   THEOLOGY   IN   THE   NINTH    AND   TENTH 

CENTURIES       ......  1 

XL    THE    STUDY     OF     THEOLOGY     IN     THE    ELEVENim     AND 

TWELFTH    CENTURIES  .  .  .  .17 

IIL    THE   ORIGIN    AND    GROWTH     OF    THE    UNIVERSITIES    IN 

THE   TWELFTH    AND    THIRTEENTH   CENTURIES  .         40 

IV.    THE   DECLINE   OF  SCHOLASTICISM  IN    THE   FOURTEENTH 

AND   FIFTEENTH   CENTURIES      .  ,  .  .61 

PART   II 

THE   MODERN   AGE 

I.  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING   .       .       ,       .82 
IL  THE  REFORMATION     .....    105 

III.  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  AND 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES     ....    143 

IV.  THE   STUDY   OF   THEOLOGY   IN   THE  NINETEENTH 

CENTURY     ......    184 

BIBLIOGRAPHY    ....,,        213 
INDEX      .  .  .  .  ,  .  .219 


PART  I 

THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY  IN  THE 
MIDDLE  AGES 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  STUDY   OF   THEOLOGY   IN   THE   NINTH  AND 
TENTH   CENTURIES 

1.  A  palace  school  vms  established  by  the  Franks  for  the 
training  of  princes  and  nobles  ;  when  Charlemagne  ap- 
pointed Alcuin  as  its  superintendent,  it  rapidly  became  a 
great  centre  of  learning. 

The  palace  school  was  founded  by  one  of  the  pre- 
decessors of  Charlemagne  for  the  training  of  the  sons  of 
princes  and  nobles.  As  a  court  school  it  moved  about 
with  the  monarch  from  place  to  place.  Charlemagne 
himself  was  trained  there. ^  He  had  some  knowledge  of 
Greek  as  well  as  Latin,  and  studied  with  the  grammarian, 
Peter  of  Pisa  ;  possibly  also  with  Paul  the  Deacon  (t  797), 
a  Benedictine  monk  and  noted  Lombard  scholar,  who 
taught  Greek  at  his  court  for  a  time,  and  afterwards 
wrote  a  history  of  the  Lombards. 

The  school  of  the  palace  was  reorganised  by  Alcuin, 

and  became  celebrated  during  the  eight  years  of  his 

superintendence.      His    classes    were    frequented    by 

Charlemagne  himself,  the  members  of  his  family  and 

1  Vide  Maitre,  Les  Acoles  ipiscopales  ei  monastiques,  pp.  34  $eq. 


2       HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

many  of  his  courtiers.  The  emperor  sought  a  reform 
in  education,  and  states  this  purpose  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  Book  of  Homihes,  revised  at  his  order  by 
Paul  the  Deacon  : 

'  Desirous  as  we  are  of  improving  the  condition  of  the  churches, 
we  impose  upon  ourselves  the  task  of  reviving,  with  the  utmost 
zeal,  the  study  of  letters,  well-nigh  extinguished  through  the 
neglect  of  our  ancestors.  We  charge  all  our  subjects,  as  far  as 
they  may  be  able,  to  cultivate  the  hberal  arts,  and  we  set  them 
the  example.' 

In  the  year  787  Charlemagne  issued  the  famous 
capitulary  addressed  to  all  the  bishops  and  abbots  in 
his  realm  : 

'  During  past  years  we  have  often  received  letters  from  different 
monasteries  informing  us  that  at  their  sacred  services  the  brethren 
offered  up  prayers  on  our  behalf  ;  and  we  have  observed  that  the 
thoughts  contained  in  these  letters,  though  in  themselves  most 
just,  were  expressed  in  uncouth  language,  and  while  pious  devo- 
tion dictated  the  sentiments,  the  unlettered  tongue  was  unable 
to  express  them  aright.  Hence  there  has  arisen  in  our  minds 
the  fear  lest,  if  the  skill  to  write  rightly  were  thus  lacking,  so 
too  would  the  power  of  rightly  comprehending  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures be  far  less  than  was  fitting  ;  and  we  all  know  that  though 
verbal  errors  be  dangerous,  errors  of  the  understanding  are  yet 
more  so.  We  exhort  you,  therefore,  not  only  not  to  neglect  the 
study  of  letters,  but  to  apply  yourselves  thereto  with  persever- 
ance and  "with  that  humility  which  is  well  pleasing  to  God  ;  so 
that  you  may  be  able  to  penetrate  with  greater  ease  and  cer- 
tainty the  mysteries  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  For  as  these  con- 
tain images,  tropes,  and  similar  figures,  it  is  impossible  to  doubt 
that  the  reader  will  arrive  far  more  readily  at  the  spiritual  sense 
according  as  he  is  the  better  instructed  in  learning.  Therefore, 
let  there  be  chosen  for  this  work  men  who  are  both  able  and 
willing  to  learn,  and  also  desirous  of  instructing  others  ;  and 
let  them  apply  themselves  to  the  work  with  a  zeal  equalUng  the 
earnestness  with  which  we  recommend  it  to  them.'  ^ 

Alcuin  was  the  chief  assistant  of  Charlemagne  in  the 
work  of  educational  reform.     According  to  the  Monk  of 

1  Vide  Mullinger,  The  Schools  o/Oharles  the  Oreat,  1877,  pp.  98  sea. 


CH.  I.]      THE  NINTH  AND  TENTH  CENTURIES  3 

St.  Gall,  '  his  teaching  bore  such  fruit  among  the  Gauls 
and  Franks  that  they  approached  the  ancient  Romans 
and  Athenians  in  learning.'  ^  But  the  journeys  of  the 
court  Alcuin  found  irksome,  and  in  790  he  withdrew  from 
the  palace  school.  In  the  following  years  he  took  an 
important  part  in  the  theological  discussions  with  the 
Adoptionists.  Although  never  advanced  beyond  the 
order  of  deacons,  he  was  given  a  seat  in  the  Council  of 
Frankfort  (794),  in  view  of  his  great  reputation  for  learn- 
ing '  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.'  He  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  deliberations  of  that  body,  which  was  com- 
posed of  representative  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the 
West,  was  presided  over  by  papal  legates,  and  took 
decisive  action  against  Adoptionism  and  image  worship. 
Five  years  later,  at  the  Council  of  Aachen,  Alcuin  had  ^-^  ^^ 
what  he  himself  calls  '  a  great  disputation  '  with  a  leader  \ 
of  the  Adoptionists,  FeUx  of  Urgel,  and  won  from  him  a^  «^<*^<^ 
public  confegsionr  of  error.  In  796  Alcuin  was' appointed  '^'^  *-•  i  *^  » 
abbot  ofThe  celebrated  monastery  of  St.  Martin  at  Tours,  ^  »  u ,  t^ 
and  there  he  laboured  until  his  death.  He  was  a  g^^^^/V^^^,^,^^^ 
teacher  rather  than  a  man  of  learning,  and  his  Gram- 
matica  gives  his  views  on  education.  While  chiefly  a 
grammarian„he  made  his  influence  felt  all  along  the  range 
of  scholarship,  and  wrote  test-books  on  grammar, 
rhetoric,  arithmetic,  astronomy  and  the  other  liberal  arts, 
some  of  which  have  been  lost.  The  Monk  of  St.  Gall 
declares  that  his  familiarity  with  the  Scriptures  '  in  their 
whole  extent '  was  beyond  that  of  all  the  other  scholars 
of  his  time.  He  revised  the  text  of  the  Vulgate,  and 
wrote  commentaries  on  various  parts  of  the  Bible,  in- 
cluding Genesis,  the  Psalms,  the  Song  of  Songs,  John's 
Gospel  and  the  Hebrews.  He  made  great  use  of  the 
Fathers,  and  subordinated  the  literal  to  the  allegorical 
sense.     His  works  on  theology  include  contributions  to 

1  Vide  Thatcher  and   M'Neal,  Source  Book  for  Mediaval  History^ 
p.  52. 


4       HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  L 

dogmatics,  ethics,  liturgies,  and  hagiography.  His 
treatise  on  the  Trinity  '  contains  the  germs  of  the  later 
scholastic  theology.'  ^  Three  hundred  of  his  letters  are 
extant,  and  also  hymns,  epigrams  and  other  forms  of 
verse. 

Two  years  after  the  retirement  of  Alcuin  from  the 
school  of  the  palace,  the  headship  was  given  to  Clement 
of  Ireland,  who  came  to  the  court  of  Charlemagne  from 
an  Irish  monastery  in  company  with  Dungal,  another 
noted  scholar.  Clement  continued  in  charge  of  the 
school  under  the  son  of  Charlemagne,  Louis  the  Pious. 
A  monk  of  St.  Gall  writes  in  the  ninth  century  : 

'  Two  Scots  from  Ireland  lighted  with  British  merchants  on 
the  coast  of  Gaul,  men  learned  without  compare  as  well  in  secular 
as  in  sacred  writing.  .  .  .  (Charlemagne)  enjoined  the  one  named 
Clement  to  abide  in  Gaul ;  to  whom  he  entrusted  youths  of  the 
most  noble,  middle  and  lowest  ranks,  in  goodly  number.  ,  .  . 
The  other  he  despatched  into  Italy,  and  appointed  him  the 
monastery  of  St.  Austin  beside  the  Ticinian  city,  that  there  such 
as  were  willing  to  learn  might  gather  unto  him.'  ^ 

In  804,  the  year  of  Alcuin's  death,  Charlemagne 
opened  at  Osnabriick  a  school  for  training  in  the  Greek 
language  and  literature,  which  was  influential  in  pro- 
moting higher  education  among  the  clergy. 

2.  Alcuin  revived  the  monastic  school  of  Tours,  and  his 
great  pupil  Rabanus  Maurus  carried  his  principles  and 
methods  into  Germany.  The  pupils  of  Rabanus,  teaching 
in  various  monasteries  in  Northern  and  Western  Europe, 
greatly  enhanced  theological  education. 

Under  the  care  of  Alcuin  the  monastery  of  Tours 

became  a  great  centre  of  scholarship.     To  his  monks 

were  distributed  '  the  honey  of  the  sacred  writings,'  '  the 

wine  of  ancient  learning,'  and  '  the  apples  of  grammatical 

subtlety.'  ^     Students  flocked  to  him  from  all  parts,  and 

1  Vide  Hahn,  'Alcuin,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 

*  Poole,  History  of  Medieval  Thoitght,  pp.  1(5  seq. 

9  Vide  Mullinger,  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great,  pp.  112  seq. 


en.  I.]      THE  NINTH  AND  TENTH  CENTURIES  5 

the  Anglo-Saxons  came  in  such  numbers  that  a  native 
monk  is  said  to  have  cried  :  '  They  swarm  hither  like 
bees  to  their  hive.'  Alcuin  introduced  a  reform  in  the 
Scriptorium,  saying  :  '  Better  than  the  digging  of  vines 
is  the  penning  of  books.'  His  school  became  noted  for 
the  clearness  of  its  script,  and  the  Caroline  Minuscule 
was  '  accepted  as  the  standard  in  the  imperial  schools.'  * 
The  greatest  scholar  among  the  pupils  of  Alcuin  at 
Tours  was  Rahanus  Maurus  (f  856),  Primus  Germanice. 
Proeceptor.  He  was  bom  at  Mainz  in  776,  and  was 
trained  in  the  liberal  arts  and  theology  in  the  monasteries 
of  Fulda  and  Tours.  He  became  a  favourite  of  Alcuin, 
who  gave  him  the  surname  of  Maurus,  the  chief  assistant 
of  Benedict,  impljdng  thereby  that  he  regarded  Rabanus 
as  his  own  chief  successor,  which  indeed  he  became.  In 
the  year  that  Alcuin  died  Rabanus  returned  to  Fulda. 
He  became  its  most  famous  teacher,  attracting  students 
from  all  parts.  Princes  and  nobles  were  trained  in  his 
school,  as  well  as  monks  and  clerics,  and  no  applicant  was 
rejected  on  the  ground  of  poverty.  When  the  Council 
of  Aachen  (817)  closed  the  doors  of  the  monastic  schools 
to  all  save  the  oblati,  a  second  school  was  opened  at 
Fulda  to  provide  for  the  '  seculars,'  and  this  example  was 
followed  in  other  monasteries.  Special  attention  was 
given  to  the  training  of  preachers  and  teachers,  and  many 
of  the  students  of  Fulda  were  called  to  positions  of  power. 
In  the  year  822  Rabanus  was  chosen  abbot.  At  that 
time  Fulda  was  mother-house  to  sixteen  lesser  monas- 
teries. Rabanus  added  six  to  the  number,  so  that  his 
rule  extended  over  twenty-two  institutions.  He  under- 
took to  build  up  the  library  at  Fulda,  and  it  prospered 
greatly  under  his  care.  Like  Alcuin,  he  saw  the  im- 
portance of  multiplying  manuscripts,  and  twelve  monks 
were  regularly  employed  in  the  Scriptorium.  After 
nearly  forty  years  of  service,  including  a  rule  of  twenty 
1   Vide  Putnam,  Books  and  their  Makers  in  the  Middle  Ages,  i.  p.  107. 


6       HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

years  as  abbot,  Rabanus  retired  from  Fulda  to  compose 
his  encyclopaedia  De  Universo,  based  on  the  theological 
part  of  Isidore's  work.  Five  years  later  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Mainz.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
sjniods  held  there  in  847,  848,  and  852.  In  the  con- 
troversy over  predestination  he  opposed  Gotteschalk  ;  in 
the  eucharistic  controversy  he  opposed  Radbertus.  His 
writings  cover  a  wide  range.  From  the  point  of  view  of 
education  the  most  important  is  his  treatise  De  in- 
stitutione  clericorum,  which  was  based  on  Augustine's 
De  doctrina  Christiana^  Cassiodorus'  Institutiones,  and 
Gregory's  Gura  Pastoralis.  Rabanus  follows  Alcuin  in 
recommending  the  study  of  dialectic  to  students  of 
theology.  It  is  the  disciplina  disciplinarum.  It 
teaches  how  to  teach,  how  to  discriminate,  how  to  know 
and  to  make  others  know.  '  It  behoves  the  clergy  to 
acquaint  themselves  with  this  most  noble  art.'  Rabanus 
strongly  emphasises  the  importance  of  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  like  Alcuin  makes  great  use  of  the 
Fathers  in  their  exposition.  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
many  of  the  books  of  the  Bible  and  the  Apocrypha,  and 
thus  describes  the  principles  of  Biblical  exegesis  : 

'  If  any  one  would  master  the  Scriptures,  he  must  first  of  all 
diligently  find  out  the  amount  of  history,  allegory,  anagoge  and 
trope  there  may  be  in  the  part  under  consideration.  For  there 
are  four  senses  to  the  Scriptures,  the  historical,  the  allegorical, 
the  tropological  and  the  anagogical,  which  we  call  the  daughters 
of  Wisdom.  Through  these  Wisdom  feeds  her  children.  To  those 
who  are  young  and  beginning  to  learn  she  gives  the  milk  of 
history ;  to  those  advancing  in  the  faith  the  bread  of  allegory ; 
those  who  are  truly  and  constantly  doing  good,  so  that  they 
abound  therein,  she  satisfies  with  the  savoury  repast  of  tropology ; 
while,  finally,  those  who  despise  earthly  things  and  ardently  desire 
the  heavenly  she  fills  to  the  full  with  the  wine  of  anagoge.^  ^ 

The  writings  of  Rabanus  include  works  on  ethics, 
martyrology,  Church  discipline,  chronology  and  grammar, 

*  Vide  Schaff,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  vol.  iv.  p.  719. 


CH.  I.]       THE  NINTH  AND  TENTH  CENTURIES  7 

sermons,  letters  and  verse  of  various  kinds.  Some  of  his 
hymns  are  contained  in  the  Breviary,  and  to  him  is 
ascribed  the  great  pentecostal  hjman,  Veni  Creator 
Spiritus. 

The  chief  pupil  of  Rabanus  was  Walafrid  Strabo 
(809-849).  He  studied  for  a  time  at  the  monastery  of 
Reichenau  on  Lake  Constance,  and  then  for  several  years 
at  Fulda.  He  was  subsequently  chosen  abbot  of 
Reichenau,  which  he  made  a  centre  of  theological  scholar- 
ship. He  was  the  originator  of  the  brief  commentaries 
on  the  Scripture  known  as  Glossa  Ordinaria.  He  also 
made  contributions  to  liturgies  and  Christian  archaeo- 
logy and  biography,  and  wrote  verse,  of  unusual  merit, 
including  The  Vision  of  Wettirij  '  an  early  precursor  of 
Dante's  Divina  Commedia.^  * 

Another  noted  scholar  of  Fulda  was  Servatits  Lupus 
(805-862),  who  studied  with  Rabanus  for  six  years.  He 
was  trained  at  the  monastery  of  Ferrieres  before  going 
to  Fulda,  and  returned  there  to  serve  first  as  teacher 
and  then  as  abbot.  He  was  a  literary  man  as  well  as  a 
theologian,  and  a  lover  of  wisdom  for  its  o\mi  sake. 
He  had  a  passion  for  books,  and  sought  them  far  and 
wide,  for  his  own  use  and  for  the  library  of  his  monastery. 
He  was  prominent  in  several  councils,  including  those  of 
Verneuil  (843)  and  Soissons  (853),  and  he  corresponded 
with  most  of  the  great  men  of  his  day,  one  hundred  and 
thirty  of  his  letters  being  still  extant.  His  works  include 
a  treatise  on  predestination,  Liber  de  tribus  qucestionibus, 
and  also  several  lives  of  saints. 

Ajnong  the  famous  pupils  of  Rabanus  was  Budolphus, 
his  successor  in  the  school  of  Fulda,  who  was  noted  as  a 
preacher  and  historian.  The  work  of  Einhard,  Annales 
Fuldenses,  was  continued  by  him. 

The  monastery  of  Corbie,  Picardy,  was  for  many 
years  in  charge  of  the  brothers  Adalhard  and  Wala, 
1  Vide  Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  i.  p.  485. 


8       HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

the  cousins  of  Charlemagne,  and  Alcuin's  pupils  in  the 
palace  school.  Among  the  scholars  of  Corbie  was 
Paschasius  Radbertus  (c.  786-865),  a  man  noted  for  piety 
and  learning.  He  taught  in  his  monastery  with  great 
success,  and  many  of  his  pupils  became  famous.  In 
844  he  was  made  abbot,  but  seven  years  later  he  resigned 
his  office  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to  study.  He 
was  active  at  the  Councils  of  Paris  (846)  and  Quiercy 
(849).  Great  discussion  was  excited  by  a  treatise  of 
Radbertus,  in  which  he  expressed  a  gross  view  of  the 
Eucharist ;  but  no  dogmatic  decision  resulted  at  that 
tima  His  views  were  opposed  by  an  anonymous 
writing,  De  corpore  et  sanguine  Domini,  usually  attributed 
to  Ratramnus,  himself  a  monk  of  Corbie  ;  but  by  the 
Synod  of  Vercelli  (1050)  to  John  Scottus  Erigena,  who 
agreed  with  it  in  any  case.  Radbertus  also  wrote  on 
the  Virgin  Birth  and  the  Christian  virtues,  on  Matthew 
and  Lamentations,  on  the  lives  of  Adalhard  and  Wala, 
and  lesser  works. 

3.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Pious  the  line  was  drawn 
strictly  between  the  monastic  and  the  cathedral  schools. 
The  latter  were  ^promoted  by  the  bishops  in  their  several 
dioceses  to  vie  with  the  monastic  and  palace  schools  in 
learning. 

A  capitulary  of  the  year  817  decreed  that  monastic 
schools  were  thereafter  to  be  confined  to  monks,  and  that 
the  secular  clergy  were  to  be  educated  at  the  episcopal 
schools  under  a  scholasticus  appointed  by  the  bishops. 
These  episcopal  schools  were  very  ancient,  indeed  the 
most  ancient  of  all  the  Christian  schools  ;  but  in  France 
they  now  began  to  multiply,  and  became  more  vigorous 
and  efficient. 

In  822  Louis  published  a  capitulary  calling  for  an 
increase  in  the  number  and  efficiency  of  the  Church 
schools,  that  there  might  be  a  suitable  place  and  properly 


CH.  I.]       THE  NINTH  AND  TENTH  CENTURIES  9 

qualified  teachers  for  the  training  of  every  aspirant  to 
clerical  rank,  young  or  old.  The  follomng  year  he 
recalled  to  the  bishops  their  promise  to  provide  a 
sufficient  number  of  such  schools.  In  824  a  council  in 
Paris  urged  this  duty  upon  every  bishop.^  The  most 
important  cathedral  schools  of  the  ninth  century  were 
those  at  Rheims  and  Orleans. 

Theodulphus,  bishop  of  Orleans  (f  821),  followed 
Alcuin,  and  nobly  supported  Charlemagne  in  the  work 
of  educational  reform.  About  ten  years  after  the 
publication  of  Charlemagne's  famous  capitulary,  Theo- 
dulphus sent  to  his  clergy  one  of  his  own,  providing 
free  schools  for  '  the  children  of  the  faithful  in  every 
town  and  village,'  and  recommending  study  as  '  a  means 
whereby  the  life  of  the  righteous  is  nourished,  and 
ennobled,  and  the  man  himself  fortified  against  tempta- 
tion.' 2  Under  Theodulphus  and  his  helper  Wulfin  the 
school  of  Orleans  flourished.  It  became  specially  noted 
for  the  work  of  transcription,  and  the  manuscripts  copied 
there  were  models  of  skill  and  accuracy.  Theodulphus 
himself  was  a  scholar  of  exceptional  attainments. 
Charlemagne  called  upon  him  for  an  account  of  the 
ceremonies  of  baptism,  and  also  for  a  collection  of 
sayings  from  the  Fathers  in  snpporf  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  filioque.  His  didactic  poems  were  famous,  and  his 
great  hjTnn,  Gloria,  laus  et  honor  tibi,  was  sung  in  France 
on  Palm  Sunday  up  to  the  time  of  the  Revolution. 

The  cathedral  school  at  Rheims  was  for  many  years 
under  the  supervision  of  Hiiicmar  (f  882).  He  became 
archbishop  of  Rheims  in  845,  and  used  his  great  authority 
to  advance  the  cause  of  learning,  enriching  the  libraries 
of  Rheims,  and  calling  upon  his  clergy  to  build  up  the 
schools  of  the  diocese. 

1  Vide  Maitre,  Les  Ecoles  episcopaZes  et  monastiques  de  I'Occident,  1866, 
pp.  24  seq. 

2  y'ide  Mullinger,  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great,  p.  103. 


10     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

Lyons  and  Turin  were  also  important  centres  of 
learning  at  this  period.  Agohard,  archbishop  of  Lyons 
(779-840),  was  probably  born  in  Spain  and  educated  at 
Lyons.  He  was  widely  influential  as  a  polemic  divine, 
and  wrote  against  Adoptionism,  verbal  inspiration, 
image  worship  and  popular  superstitions.  Of  special 
interest  are  his  works,  De  dispensatione  ecclesiasticarum 
rerum,  and  Comparatio  utriusque  regiminis  ecclesiastici  et 
politici. 

Claudius,  bishop  of  Turin  (f  832),  was  born  also  in 
Spain,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Felix  of  Urgel,  but  did  not 
imbibe  Adoptionism  from  his  master.  Like  Agobard,  he 
opposed  image  worsliip,  and  other  customs  tending  to- 
ward superstition.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  many 
of  the  books  of  the  Bible,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  catence. 
He  was  suspected  of  Nestorianism. 

4.  An  effort  was  made  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  ninth 
century  to  organise  public  schools  of  a  higher  order  under  the 
patronage  of  the  crown,  but  the  plan  failed  because  of  wars. 

In  829  an  assembly  of  the  bishops  at  Paris  petitioned 
the  emperor,  Louis  the  Pious,  to  establish  three  large 
public  schools  to  which  seculars  and  regulars  alike  might 
resort.  These  were  to  be  higher  or  graduate  schools. 
This  proposal  was  made  about  three  centuries  before  the 
universities  of  Europe  were  established.  But  war  and 
the  division  of  the  empire  prevented  the  carrying  out  of 
the  plan. 

5.  In  Italy  nine  public  schools  were  established  in  the 
chief  cities  of  the  North,  under  the  influence  of  Irish 
monks,  and  of  Charlemagne.  Two  Roman  councils 
ordained  that  every  bishopric  should  have  its  school  in 
which  the  Scriptures  should  be  taught. 

During  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  theological  as 
well  as  classical  education  met  with  varied  fortunes  in 
Italy,  owing  to  frequent  wars  and  invasions.     But  in  th^ 


CH.  I.]      THE  NINTH  AND  TENTH  CENTURIES  11 

ninth  century  there  was  a  revival  of  learning.  In  823 
Lothair  i.  made  a  decree  establishing  central  schools  in 
nine  important  cities  :  Pavia,  Ivrea,  Turin,  Cremona, 
Florence,  Fermo,  Verona,  Vicenza,  and  Friuli.  The 
head  of  the  school  at  Pavia  was  an  Irishman  named 
Dungal,  probably  the  same  as  the  companion  of  Clement 
at  the  court  of  Charlemagne.^  Doubtless  Lothair  was 
stimulated  to  the  organisation  of  these  schools  by  the 
influence  of  his  grandfather  Charlemagne,  whose  own 
teachers  had  come  from  the  north  of  Italy. 

Provision  for  episcopal  schools  was  made  by  a  Roman 
council  under  Eugene  ii.  (825),  which  ordained  that 
every  see  should  have  its  bishop's  school.  This  decree 
was  emphasised  by  a  later  council  under  Leo  iv.  (850), 
which  also  required  the  appointment  in  every  diocese  of 
teachers  to  interpret  the  Scriptures. 

6.  Erigena  was  made  head  of  the  palace  school  in  845. 
He  used  the  dialectic  method  in  the  study  of  theology, 
translated  into  Latin  '  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,^  and 
mxide  much  use  of  the  Greek  Fathers. 

The  older  monastic  education  of  Ireland  again  made 
its  influence  felt  in  France  at  the  court  of  Charles  the 
Bold,  grandson  of  Charlemagne,  through  Johannes  Scottus, 
also  called  Erigena  (c.  815-875).  Greek  was  still  taught 
in  the  Irish  schools,  and  Erigena  was  a  Greek  scholar. 
He  translated  '  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  '  into  Latin, 
and  thus  introduced  this  famous  work  of  Neo-Platonism 
to  the  West.  Anastasius,  the  papal  librarian,  wondered 
how  '  this  barbarian  living  on  the  confines  of  the  world, 
who  might  have  been  deemed  to  be  as  ignorant  of  Greek 
as  he  was  remote  from  civilisation,  could  have  proved 
capable  of  comprehending  such  mysteries  and  translating 
them  into  another  tongue.'  ^     Erigena  was  a  student  of 

bi.^       *  J^id^  p.  4. 

2   ''id   Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  p.  492. 
VOL.  IT.  B 


12     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  I. 

Origen  and  the  great  Cappadocians,  and  through  him 
their  influence  also  was  revived  in  the  Western  Church. 
In  exegesis  he  made  use  of  the  allegorical  method  ;  but 
in  argument  he  appealed  to  the  reason,  using  the  dialectic 
method  instead  of  the  traditional  citation  of  authorities 
in  the  Positive  Theology.  An  example  of  this  is  his 
treatise  De  divina  pro^destinatione,  written  against  the 
high-Augustinian  Gotteschalk.  Erigena  also  appealed 
to  the  Greek  rather  than  to  the  Latin  Fathers.  These 
unfamiliar  methods  brought  him  into  trouble  with  the 
Latin  theologians  of  his  time.  His  great  work  is  De 
divisione  natures.  He  claims  for  theology  and  philo- 
sophy a  common  source — the  divine  Wisdom. 

7.  Alfred  the  Great,  of  England,  encouraged  the  study  of 
theology  by  his  patronage  and  his  own  translations. 

Alfred  (|  901)  was  a  studious  youth  and  a  scholarly 
king.  He  revived  the  study  of  theology  in  England, 
and  himself  undertook  the  work  of  translation.  He 
founded  new  monasteries  at  Winchester  and  Athelney, 
and  assembled  learned  men  from  all  parts  to  teach  in 
his  schools.  He  also  established  a  school  at  his  court 
for  the  training  of  the  sons  of  nobles  and  officials,  after 
the  model  of  the  school  of  Charlemagne.  He  and  his 
helpers  translated  Boethius'  Consolation  of  Philosophy, 
the  Universal  History  of  Orosius,  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Bede,  Gregory's  Pastoral  Care  and  Augustine's 
Soliloquies. 

8.  In  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  appeared  for  the 
first  time  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals,  which,  in  con- 
nection vnth  the  Donation  of  Constantine,  greatly  in- 
fluenced the  development  of  Canon  Law. 

They  are  summarily  described  by  Gieseler  : 

'  These  decretals  consisted  of  admonitions,  instructions,  and 
regulations,  compiled  for  the  most  part  from  existing  ecclesiasti- 
cal literature.      But  they  are  of  historical  importance  only  in 


CH.  I.]      THE  NINTH  AND  TENTH  CENTURIES  13 

consequence  of  the  new  principles  of  ecclesiastical  law  by  which, 
developing  a  tendency  that  had  arisen  already  in  the  Church 
amid  the  weakness  and  disunion  of  worldly  power,  they  were 
meant  to  make  the  Church  independent  of  the  State,  and  to  give 
it  a  self-dependent  centre  of  protection  in  the  Roman  see.  Ex- 
altation of  the  episcopal  dignity ;  numerous  definitions  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  clergy,  and  in  particular  the  bishops, 
against  attacks ;  hraitation  of  the  metropohtans,  who  were  often 
very  much  dependent  upon  the  civil  power;  elevation  of  the 
primates  to  be  the  first  instruments  of  the  popes  ;  and  in  par- 
ticular, an  enlargement  of  the  privileges  of  the  Roman  see  ;  these 
form  the  chief  ecclesiastical  and  legal  contents  of  the  Pseudo- 
IsidorianaJ'  ^ 

These  decretals  were  issued  under  a  pseudonym  to 
support  the  bishops  in  their  conflicts  with  the  metro- 
politans in  France.  They  were  used  by  the  popes,  and 
in  canon  law,  from  the  time  of  Nicolaus  i.  (864)  onward 
to  the  Reformation,  when  they  were  shown  to  be  with- 
out real  authority.  They  originated  in  eastern  France 
according  to  some  scholars,^  in  western  France  according 
to  others.  Miiller  ^  suggests  Rheims  ;  Loofs  *  and  Lesne,^ 
either  Rheims  or  Le  Mans ;  Febronius,  Theiner,  and  others, 
Rome.^  There  is  the  same  uncertainty  as  to  the  date. 
Miiller  proposes  851-2,  Loofs  847-853,  Lesne  847-852. 
Many  give  an  earlier  date.  Alexander  Natalis,  Mabillon 
and  others  assign  them  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne  ; 
Febronius  to  744  ;  Theiner  to  the  years  774-785  ;  Eich- 
horn  to  the  eighth  century  ; '  but  these  earlier  dates  are 
improbable. 

The  Donation  of  Constantine  was  composed  in  Rome 
at  a  much  earlier  time,  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century. 

1  Vide  Gieseler,  Ecclesiastical  History,  ii.  pp.  110  seq. 

2  So  Gieseler,  following  Blondel,  Ballerini,  Spittler,  and  Planck. 

3  Karl  Miiller,  Kirchengeschichfe,  i.  p.  365. 

*  Loots,  Grundlinien  der  Kirchengeschichte,  p.  68. 

5  Lesne,  La  hierarchic  episcopale,  provinces,  metropolitains,  primats  en 
Gaule  et  Germanie,  pp.  186  seq. 
«  Vide  Gieseler,  ii.  p.  114,  n.  11. 
7  Vide  Gieseler,  ibid. 


14     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

9.  The  tenth  century  was  a  time  of  destructive  invasions 
by  barbarians.  Nevertheless  the  monastery  of  Cluny  was 
founded,  and  'produced  many  famous  scholars.  In  Germany 
scholarship  revived  under  the  influence  of  Bruno.  The 
greatest  theologian  of  this  age  was  Gerbert,  a  prodigy  of 
learning,  who  also  had  distinguished  pupils. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth  and  the  whole  of 
the  tenth  century  everything  in  Europe  was  in  con- 
fusion, owing  to  the  constant  struggles  with  heathen 
invaders,  who  destroyed  cities  and  monasteries,  burned 
books,  and  killed  or  took  captive  monks  and  scholars. 
England  was  overrun  by  the  Danes  ;  western  France  by 
the  Normans  ;  Germany,  the  east  and  south  of  France, 
and  northern  Italy  by  the  Hungarians.  These  laid 
waste  the  monasteries  of  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland,  and  of 
Fulda  in  Germany.  South  and  West  Italy,  Spain,  and 
southern  France  were  in  constant  peril  from  the  Saracens, 
who  sacked  Rome  in  846.  And  yet  even  in  this  dark 
period  new  institutions  of  learning  were  founded, 
especially  in  France  and  Germany. 

In  the  year  910  William,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  founded 
the  monastery  of  Cluny,  in  the  diocese  of  Macon,  with 
Berno  as  its  first  abbot  (t  927).  Under  his  successor  Odo 
(f  941)  it  became  a  great  seat  of  learning,  from  which  as 
a  centre  the  influence  of  reform  pervaded  the  schools  at 
Metz,  Rheims,  Liege  and  Paris,  and  spread  even  to  other 
lands.  Odo  was  trained  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Martin 
at  Tours,  and  afterwards  studied  the  Trivium  and 
Quadrivium  in  Paris  with  Remi  of  Auxerre. 

Gerbert  (950-1003),  a  monk  of  Aurillac,  was  trained  in 
that  monastery  under  Raimund,  a  pupil  of  Odo  at  Cluny. 
He  was  sent  to  Barcelona,  Spain,  and  there  devoted  him- 
self to  study,  especially  to  mathematics,  astronomy,  and 
music.  On  his  return  to  France  he  taught  in  the  schools 
of  Tours,  Fleury,  Sens,  and  Rheims.  In  the  latter  school 
he  acquired  a  reputation  for  extraordinary  learning. 


CH.  I.]       THE  NINTH  AND  TENTH  CENT:URIES  15 

The  range  of  his  studies  included  medicine,  which  gave 
rise  to  the  suspicion  that  he  practised  the  magic  arts. 
This  did  not  prevent  his  rapid  advancement  in  the 
Church  ;  and  he  became  in  succession  abbot  of  Bobbio, 
archbishop  of  Rheims,  archbishop  of  Ravemia,  and 
finally  pope  (999),  under  the  name  of  Silvester  n. 

Gerbert  had  many  distinguished  pupils,  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  Richer  of  Rheims^  the  historian 
(t  1010),  and  Fulbert  of  Chartres}  the  founder  of  that 
famous  school.  But  of  all  the  pupils  of  Cluny  or  its 
scholars,  the  most  illustrious  was  Hildebrand,  who,  as 
Gregory  vn.,  became  the  greatest  of  the  mediaeval 
popes,^ 

In  Germany  the  cause  of  learning  was  upheld  by 
Bru7io  (925-965),  son  of  Henry  the  Fowler  and  brother  of 
Otto  the  Great.  He  was  educated  at  Utrecht,  and 
was  entrusted  by  Otto  with  the  building  up  of  the  scliola 
palatina.  In  940  he  was  made  chancellor,  in  951 
archicapellanus,  and  two  years  later  archbishop  of 
Cologne.  He  is  said  to  have  '  restored  the  long  ruined 
fabric  of  the  seven  liberal  arts.'  A-VTierever  he  went,  he 
carried  with  him  his  library,  '  as  if  it  had  been  the  ark  of 
the  Lord.'  Poole  likens  him  to  Alfred  of  England,  and 
ascribes  to  his  influence  the  fact  that  '  the  clergy  of 
Germany  became  marked  out  from  the  rest  of  Christen- 
dom no  less  by  their  education  than  by  its  fruit,  their 
moral  excellence.'  Poole  cites  Arnulf  of  Orleans  as 
sapng  '  in  his  famous  speech  before  the  Council  of  St. 
Basol,  near  Bheims  (991)  :  "In  Belgica  et  Geriiiania  .  .  , 
summos    sacerdotes    del    religione    admodum    'prcestantes 


xnveniri. 


55    5    3 


10.  During  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  much  less  in- 
tellectual activity  in  the  Greek  Church  than  in  the  Latin, 

1  Vide  pp.  24  f.  2  vide  pp.  17  f. 

'  Vide  Poole,  Medieval  Thought,  pp.  86  seq. 


16     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  the  only  great  writers  were 
Photius  and  Suidas. 

Photius  (c.  820-897),  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  led 
the  Greeks  in  their  dispute  with  the  Latin  Church  over 
the  filioque.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer  of  encyclo- 
paedic learning,  and  is  called  the  greatest  scholar  of  his 
time.  His  chief  works  on  theology  are  :  his  Bihliotheca 
or  Myriobiblon,  which  describes  two  hundred  and  eighty 
books  in  as  many  chapters  ;  and  his  Amphilochia,  which 
gives  answers  to  three  hundred  questions,  chiefly  relating 
to  the  Scriptures.  He  also  wrote  a  lexicon,  comment- 
aries, a  treatise  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  a  polemic  against  the 
Paulicians,  letters,  poems  and  other  minor  works.  Many 
of  his  writings  are  extant  in  fragments  only  ;  others 
have  been  lost  altogether. 

Suidas  is  known  only  through  his  lexicon  (c.  976),  a 
work  of  great  learning  and  permanent  value,  which  has 
some  of  the  features  of  an  encyclopaedia. 

The  only  other  writers  worthy  of  mention  are : 
(Ecumenius,  the  exegete  (f  999),  Simeon  Metaphrastes, 
the  hagiographer  (c.  900),  and  the  minor  historians 
Nicephorus  (f  829)  and  Theophanes  (f  c  817),  belonging 
to  the  Constantinopolitan  school.^  This  age,  however, 
produced  some  of  the  greatest  hymns  of  the  Greek 
Church. 

I  Vide  pp.  38  f. 


CH.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES  17 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  STUDY  OP  THEOLOGY  IN  THE  ELEVENTH  AND 
TWELFTH  CENTURIES 

The  tenth  century  had  been  a  time  of  terrible  disaster,  of 
corruption  in  morals  and  disorders  of  every  kind,  all 
calling  for  reform.  The  eleventh  century  was  a  time  of 
revival.  The  second  period  of  the  Mddle  Ages  properly 
begins  in  the  midst  of  this  century,  when  the  Hilde- 
brandian  reforms  began. 

1.  Hildebrand,  a  scholar  of  Cluny,  of  extraordinary 
ability  in  theology  and  law,  became  the  great  reformer  of 
the  Church  of  the  eleventh  century,  whose  influence  has 
remained  through  all  the  subsequent  times. 

Hildebrand  (c.  1020-1085)  was  born  in  Tuscany,  and 
received  his  education  in  Rome.  He  entered  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  on  the  Aventine,  which  was  under  the 
reforming  influence  of  Cluny,  and  '  the  home  of  its  abbots 
on  their  pilgrima-ges  to  Rome.'  ^  It  is  said  that  Hilde- 
brand spent  some  time  at  Cluny  during  his  student  years. 
He  became  the  disciple  and  assistant  of  Gregory  vi., 
accompanying  him  on  his  journeys.  On  the  death  of 
that  pope  Hildebrand  retired  to  Cluny.  In  1049  he  was 
called  to  Rome  as  companion  of  Bruno,  who  was  received 
there  with  acclamation  as  Pope  Leo  ix.  Hildebrand  now 
became  a  man  of  affairs.  He  had  doubtless  been  trained 
in  law,  though  where  is  not  known.     He  now  took  up  the 

1  Schaff,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  v.,  Pt.  i.  p.  11, 


18      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

work  of  reform  begun  at  the  Synod  of  Sutri  (1046),  and 
carried  it  on  during  the  pontificates  of  Leo  ix.  and  his 
successors.  He  himself  became  pope  in  1073,  as  Gregory 
vn.  At  his  election  he  was  declared  to  be  '  a  man 
eminent  in  piety  and  learning,  a  lover  of  equity  and 
justice,  .  .  .  well  brought  up  and  educated  in  the  bosom 
of  this  mother  church.'  ^  In  1075  he  wrote  to  Hugh  of 
Cluny,  in  great  distress,  mourning  the  evils  that  existed 
in  the  Church  : 

'  The  Eastern  Church,  fallen  from  the  faith,  and  attacked  from 
without  by  the  infidels.  In  the  West,  South  or  North,  scarcely 
any  bishops  who  have  obtained  their  ofiice  regularly,  or  whose 
life  and  conduct  correspond  to  their  caUing,  and  who  are  actuated 
by  the  love  of  Christ  instead  of  worldly  ambition.  .  .  .  And  when 
I  look  to  myself,  I  feel  oppressed  by  such  a  burden  of  sin,  that  no 
other  hope  of  salvation  is  left  me  but  in  the  mercy  of  Christ  alone.'  * 

As  pope  Hildebrand  laboured  for  twelve,  as  reformer 
for  six-and- thirty  years.  He  transformed  the  papacy  and 
the  entire  priesthood  and  hierarchy,  after  monastic 
models.  Of  the  three  vows  of  the  regulars,  enforcing 
chastity,  obedience  and  poverty,  two  were  extended  by 
him  to  the  secular  clergy  as  well.  There  could  be  no 
more  married  priests,  and  the  law  of  obedience  of  the 
seculars  must  be  as  strict  as  that  of  the  regulars. 

Gregory  thereby  accomplished  two  great  reforms  :  he 
overcame  simony  and  concubinage  for  a  time  among  the 
clergy ;  and  he  emancipated  the  Church  from  the 
dominion  of  the  state.  But  he  erred  in  straining  the 
authority  of  the  pope,  so  as  to  extend  it  beyond  faith  and 
morals  into  civil  and  social  affairs,  which  belong  to  the 
state.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  depose  an  emperor,  and 
to  put  whole  nations  under  the  ban. 

2.  In  the  eleventh  century  there  was  a  great  revival  in 
the  Benedictine  order  ;    and  many  new  monasteries  were 

1  Vide  Schaff,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  v.,  Pt.  i.  p.  25. 
•  Ep,  ii.  49,  as  quoted  by  SclialT,  ibid.,  p.  26. 


CH.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES  19 

established,  the  chief  of  which  was  that  of  Bee,  in  Normandy, 
out  of  which  came  Lanfranc  and  Anselm. 

The  Benedictine  order  gave  birth  in  the  eleventh 
century  to  several  new  forms,  which  perpetuated  them- 
selves in  the  different  countries.  The  most  important  of 
these  were  established  :  (1)  at  Camaldoli  in  the  Apen- 
nines (1012),  where  Romuald  of  Ravenna  founded  the 
Camaldolites  ;  (2)  at  Vallombrosa,  near  Florence  (1038), 
where  Gualbert  founded  the  Vallombrosans ;  (3)  at 
Grenoble,  in  France  (1084),  where  Bruno  founded  the 
Carthusian  order,  which  laid  great  stress  on  the  gathering 
and  transcribing  of  books  ;  (4)  at  Citeaux,  in  France 
(1098),  where  Robert  Cluniac  founded  the  Cistercians,  the 
order  of  St.  Bernard. 

Bruno  (f  1101)  was  trained  at  the  cathedral  school  of 
Rheims,  and  taught  there  as  scholasticus  for  some  twenty 
years.  According  to  Maitre,^  he  lectured  on  the  liberal 
arts  and  theology  with  such  distinction  that  the  whole 
of  France  resounded  with  the  triumph  of  '  the  doctor  of 
doctors,'  and  associated  his  name  with  those  of  Lanfranc 
and  Anselm. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (1090-1153),  the  great  mystic, 
built  up  the  Cistercian  order,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
influential  teachers  and  preachers  of  the  Mediaeval 
Church.  He  is  said  by  his  friend,  John  of  Salisbury,  to 
have  known  '  little  of  secular  letters  '  ;  yet  he  was  '  a  man 
mighty  in  work  and  speech  before  God,  as  it  is  believed, 
and  before  men,  as  is  well  known.'  ^  William  of  St. 
Thierry  (f  1 149)  wrote  :  '  I  tarried  with,  him  a  few  days . . . 
and  whichever  way  I  turned  my  eyes,  I  marvelled,  and 
thought  I  saw  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth. . . .  One  could 
feel  that  God  was  in  the  place.'  ^  Bernard  was  remark- 
able for  his  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  and  was  revered 

1  Vide  Maitre,  Les  Ecoles  ipiscojjales  et  monastiques,  p.  105. 
8  Vide  Poole,  History  of  Medieval  Thought,  p.  189. 
*  Vita  prima,  i.  7  ;  vide  Migue,  clxxiii. 


20     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

in  his  lifetime  as  a  saint  and  a  prophet.  His  writings 
include  dogmatic,  mystic,  polemic,  ascetic  and  practical 
treatises,  also  many  valuable  letters,  sermons,  and  hymns. 
Calvin  says  :  '  In  his  De  consideratione  Bernard  speaks  as 
though  the  very  truth  itself  were  speaking.'  Luther 
deems  him  '  superior  in  his  sermons  to  all  the  doctors, 
even  to  Augustine.'  ^ 

The  monastery  of  Bee  was  founded  in  Normandy,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Seine  (c.  1034),  by  St.  Herluin,  and 
became  the  most  famous  monastic  school  of  France  in 
the  eleventh  century.  Lanfranc  (c.  1042)  and  Anselm 
(c.  1060)  studied  there  :  both  ruled  as  prior,  and  Anselm 
as  abbot  (1078-1093).  These  distinguished  scholars  were 
both  Lombards,  and  had  studied  in  Italy  before  going  to 
Bee.  Lanfranc  (f  1089)  had  studied  law  as  well  as  the 
liberal  arts  at  Pa  via,  according  to  the  statement  of  his 
early  biographer ;  ^  and  it  is  probable  that  he  introduced 
the  study  of  law  at  Bee.  It  is  related  of  Lanfranc  that, 
when  he  visited  Alexander  ii.,  the  pope  rose  to  meet 
him,  saying  that  he  did  so  '  not  because  he  is  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  but  because  I  was  in  his  school  at  Bee,  and 
sat  at  his  feet  T\dth  his  other  pupils.'  ^ 

Anselm  (f  1109)  left  family  and  fortune  to  attach 
himself  to  Lanfranc,  whose  fame  filled  the  West.  He 
replaced  his  master,  first  at  Bee  and  then  at  Canterbury  ; 
and  far  surpassed  him  as  a  theologian.  He  has  been 
called  a  '  second  Augustine '  and  '  the  last  of  the 
fathers.'  *  His  influence  was  perpetuated  by  his  pupil, 
Anselm  of  Laon,  who  counted  among  his  hearers  all  the 
learned  scholars  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  greater 
number  of  the  pupils  of  Bee  succeeded  to  positions  in 
which  they  were  able  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence 

1  Vide  SchaflF,  History  of  the  Christian  Qhurch,  pp.  344  n.  2,  351. 

2  Milo  Crispin,  Vita  Lanfranci,  I.  v.  ;  vide  Migne,  P.L.,  cl.  29,  39. 

3  Vita  Lanfranci,  ap.  Migne,  P.L.,  cl.  19;  Maitre,  Les  Ecoles  e;piscO' 
pales  rt  monastiques,  p.  124. 

4  Vide  Poole,  Medieval  Thought^  p.  104. 


CH.  n.]    ELEVEXTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         21 

on  theological   education.     In  England  especially  the 
scholars  of  Bee  were  in  demand.^ 

3.  Lanfranc  and  Anselm  became  the  centres  of  two  great 
theological  debates,  namely,  those  on  the  Eucharist  and  the 
Atonement. 

The  eucharistic  controversy  was  a  revival  of  the 
milder  one  of  the  ninth  century,  which  raged  for  a  while 
about  Paschasius  Radbertus,  Ratramnus,  and  John 
Scottus  Erigena,  but  did  not  then  result  in  a  dogmatic 
definition.  In  1050  Berengar  of  Tours  WTote  a  letter  to 
Lanfranc,  then  prior  of  Bee,  sustaining  (as  he  thought) 
Erigena' s  views,  but  really  going  to  the  length  of  heresy 
in  his  conception  of  the  Eucharist  as  sjTubolic.  He 
was  condemned  under  the  influence  of  Lanfranc,  first  at 
Rome  and  Vercelli  (1050),  then  at  Florence  (1055)  and 
Rome  (1059),  and  finally  in  two  councils  held  at  Rome 
(1078-1079),  under  Gregory  vn.,  when  he  was  compelled 
to  subscribe  a  profession  of  faith  defining  the  church 
doctrine  of  the  Eucharist.^  The  doctrine  as  defined 
was  :  {a)  that  the  body  of  Christ  is  really  present  in  the 
Eucharist ;  (b)  that  it  is  the  identical  body  that  was 
crucified,  rose  from  the  dead,  and  is  enthroned  in  heaven ; 
(c)  that  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine  is  converted 
into  the  substance  of  the  body  of  Christ ;  {d)  that  the 
Eucharist  is  a  sacrifice,  representing  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ.3 

Anselm  was  the  greatest  theologian  of  his  time.  He 
made  less  use  of  the  principle  of  authority  than  his 
predecessors,  even  Lanfranc,  and  made  great  use  of 
reason  and  logic  in  the  discussion  of  Christian  doctrine. 
This  was  especially  so  in  his  great  works,  the  Monologium 
and   the   Proslogium,   notably  in  Cur  deus   homo  ?,  in 

1  Vide  Maitre,  Les  Ecoles  episcopates  et  monastiques,  p.  125. 

*  Vide  Denzinger,  Enchiridion  Symbolomm  et  LfeJiniLionum,  p.  105. 


22     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

which  he  lays  the  foundation  for  the  doctrine  of  the 
Atonement  for  all  time.  But  as  this  did  not  provoke 
serious  discussion,  it  did  not  occasion  a  definition  by  the 
Church.  His  doctrine  was  that  the  Incarnation  was  a 
voluntary  act  of  the  Son  of  God  ;  in  order  that  He  might, 
by  the  death  of  the  Cross,  satisfy  the  divine  majesty  and 
merit  the  divine  grace  for  the  sinful  world.  Sin  was  an 
offence  against  the  divine  majesty  according  to  the 
feudal  conception,  and  it  involved  the  extreme  penalty 
of  death.  The  sinner  must  suffer  death  or  render 
adequate  satisfaction.  Only  the  Son  of  God  could  do 
this  by  rendering  infinite  satisfaction  and  earning  infinite 
merit.  The  older  undogmatic  view,  still  represented  by 
Bernard,  was  that  the  devil  had  a  claim  on  the  sinner, 
and  his  claim  was  satisfied  by  the  death  of  Christ  on  the 
Cross.* 

4.  In  the  eleventh  century  the  cathedral  schools  became 
prominent,  especially  those  of  Laon,  Chartres,  and  Paris. 

1.  The  school  of  Laon  became  celebrated  through  two 
brothers,  Anselm  (f  1117)  and  Ralph  (t  1138),  who 
attracted  students  from  great  distances,  from  Milan  in 
the  south  and  from  Bremen  in  the  north.  Many  came 
over  from  England.  These  men  were  the  teachers  of 
William  of  Champeaux,  Abelard,  Alberic  of  Rheims, 
Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  and  many  other  notable  scholars. 
After  the  death  of  Ralph  the  school  lost  its  importance. 
Anselm  studied  at  Bee,  and  '  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
reputation  '  at  Paris,  where  he  taught  theology  (c.  1076). 
He  was  made  scJiolasticus  of  the  cathedral  school  at  Laon 
(c.  1089)  ;  and  he  and  his  brother  became  '  the  two  eyes  ' 
of  that  church.^  John  of  Salisbury  calls  them  the 
'  most  splendid  luminaries  of  Gaul,  the  glory  of  Laon, 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  137  seq. 

2  Guibert  de  Nogeot,  cited  by  Fevet,  La  Faculti  de  theologie  de  Paris 
an  moyen  dge,  i.  p.  26. 


CH.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         23 

whose  memory  is  in  pleasantness  and  blessing.'  ^  Anselm's 
theology  has  been  described  as  '  properly  only  a  simple 
and  solid  exposition  of  the  Holy  Scripture,  supported  by 
the  authority  of  the  holy  fathers,  whom  he  studied  all 
his  life.'  Guibert  de  Nogent  says  that  he  '  made  more 
good  Catholics  than  the  heterodox  (teachers)  of  his  time 
made  heretics,  "  tam  sincera  est  in  Scripturarum  ac 
fidei  assertione  severitas."  '  He  was  '  the  light  of  all 
France  and  of  the  Latin  Church.'  John  of  Salisbury 
calls  him  '  doctorum  doctorem.'  Pope  Eugene  iii. 
said  :  '  God  caused  him  to  be  born  so  that  the  Holy 
Scriptures  might  not  perish.'  ^  Anselm,  indeed,  is 
especially  distinguished  in  the  history  of  Biblical  Exegesis 
for  his  Glossa  interlinearis,  which  continued  to  be  used 
all  through  the  IMiddle  Ages.  He  also  wrote  special 
commentaries  on  the  Song  of  Songs,  Matthew,  and 
Revelation.  Abelard  said  of  Anselm  :  '  He  kindled  a 
fire,  not  to  give  hght,  but  to  fill  the  house  with  smoke.'  ^ 
But  Crevier's  comment  is  : 

'  It  is  hard  to  restrain  one's  indignation,  at  beholding  thus 
treated  a  man  who,  for  the  forty  years  during  which  he  taught 
theology,  was  regarded  ...  as  the  light  and  the  oracle  of  the  Latin 
Church  ;  who  was  called  the  "  doctor  of  doctors,"  and  in  whose 
school  were  trained  the  great  theologians,  scholars,  and  pious 
prelates,  who  gave  lustre  not  only  to  France,  but  to  England, 
Germany,  and  Italy.'  * 

The  school  of  Laon,  as  Poole  remarks,^  '  acquired  a 

peculiar   and   almost   unique   name   for   the    steadfast 

fidelity  with  which  it  maintained  and  handed  on  the 

pure  theological  tradition  of  the  Church  '  ;    and  while 

this  reputation  may  have  been  '  apart  from  the  personal 

weight  of  (these)  teachers,'  it  was  doubtless  the  result  of 

their  labours. 

1  Vide  Poole,  Hist,  of  Medieval  Thought,  p.  112. 
»  Cited  by  Feret,  La  Facul'e  de  theologie  de  Paris,  i.  pp.  27,  28. 
8  Abelard,  Ep.  i.  3;  vide  Poole,  Hist,  of  Medieval  Thought,  p.  144; 
Feret,  La  Faculte  de  Theologie  de  Paris,  i.  p.  27. 
<  Crevier.  Hist,  de  I'Univ.  de  Paris,  i.  pp.  124  seq. 
6  Poole,  Hist,  of  Medieval  Thought,  pp.  Ill  seq. 


24     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

2,  The  school  of  Chartres  gained  its  importance  from 
Fulbert,  a  pupil  of  Gerbert,  and  from  Ivo,  a  pupil  of 
Lanfranc.  Fulbert  (f  1028)  like  Gerbert  added  medicine 
to  theology,  philosophy,  and  the  liberal  arts ;  and 
Chartres  soon  took  rank  with  Rheims  as  a  seat  of  the 
higher  learning.  In  1006  Fulbert  was  made  bishop ; 
but  he  continued  to  teach  in  the  school,  following  what 
seems  to  have  been  the  traditional  usage  of  the  see, 
whose  bishops  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  eleventh,  and 
twelfth  centuries  are  known  to  have  presided  in  the 
school.^  Fulbert  was  still  young  when  he  began  to  teach 
at  Chartres  ;  and  he  presided  there  as  bishop  for  con- 
siderably over  twenty-one  years.  In  that  time  multitudes 
came  under  his  influence.  An  English  monk  of  the 
following  century  writes  : 

'  The  town  of  Chartres,  even  in  our  time,  is  full  of  the  genius 
of  Fulbert.  It  is  second  to  no  other  in  Gaul  in  the  number  and 
the  learning  of  its  scholars.'  ^ 

The  bond  which  united  Fulbert  to  his  pupils,  and  these 
to  one  another,  was  very  strong.  Adelmann,  scholasticus 
of  Liege,  recalls  with  pleasure  his  life  as  a  student  '  sub 
nostro  illo  venerabili  Socrate.'^  He  describes  himself 
to  Fulbert  as  '  vernaculus  tuus,'  '  alumnus  tuus.'  '  To 
others,'  he  cries,  '  I  have  shown  something  of  myself, 
but  to  you  I  have  disclosed  the  whole.'  At  Fulbert's 
death  he  wrote  :  '  I  was  his  companion  ;  I  was  often  by 
his  side  ;  I  drank  with  avidity  the  words  of  gold,  sweet 
as  honey,  that  fell  from  his  lips.'  Hildegaire,  another 
pupil,  seeking  pardon  for  having  given  way  to  anger 
in  his  presence,  wrote  :  '  I  implore  you  not  to  refuse  me 
the  boon  of  your  counsel  and  your  correction.  The 
greatest  of  misfortunes  for  me  would  be  to  be  abandoned 

1  Vide  Clerval,  Les  Ecolcs  de  Chartres  au  moyen  Age,  du  F«  au  X  VI* 
Steele,  pp.  29  seq. 

2  Cited  by  Clerval,  ibid.,  p.  96. 

8   Vide  Maitre,  Les  Ecoles  episc.  et  monast.,  p.  103. 


CH.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         25 

by  you.'  The  same  pupil  compares  himself  to  the  hart 
'  panting  for  the  water-brooks  '  in  his  longing  for  the 
teaching  of  his  master,  '  more  precious  than  gold  or 
silver,  than  life  itself.'  At  Fulbert's  death  his  scholars 
wrote  in  his  epitaph  : 

'  He  is  dead,  dear  to  God  and  to  man,  our  Father  of  precious 
memory,  Fulbert,  bishop  of  this  holy  see.  He  was  a  conspicuous 
luminary,  given  to  the  world  by  God,  ...  a  man  most  eloquent 
and  versed  in  the  divine  sciences  and  in  the  books  of  the  liberal 
arts.  .  .  .  He  has  made  this  church  illustrious  with  the  rays  of 
his  sanctity  and  his  learning,  and  has  wrought  great  things  for 
his  students.'  ^ 

William  of  Malmesbury  describes  him  as  '  most 
eminent  in  holiness  and  philosophy.'  Clerval  remarks 
that  he  was  acquainted  mth  Hebrew,  and  cites  the 
Septuagint ;  and  that  '  if  he  did  not  know  the  Greek 
fathers,  he  was  familiar  with  the  Latin.'  ^  In  exegesis  he 
avoided  excess  in  the  use  of  both  the  allegorical  and  the 
critical  methods,  basing  his  interpretation  on  the 
Uteral  and  historical  sense,  and  having  recourse  for  that 
purpose  to  the  original  text.  Once  possessed  of  the 
literal  meaning  he  passed  on  to  its  moral  and  spiritual 
application.  His  theology,  like  that  of  Anselm  of  Laon, 
was  Positive  Theology.  Fulbert  also  appeals  to  codes 
of  canon  law  and  to  Charlemagne's  Capitularies.  He 
'  cites  numerous  councils,  both  ancient  and  modern.' 
Clerval  suggests  that  there  was  at  Chartres  some  study 
of  law.  Among  the  pupils  of  Fulbert  was  the  famous 
Berengarius  (f  1088),  who  became  scholasticus  at  Tours 
and  archdeacon  of  Angers,  and  who  reintroduced  the 
eucharistic  controversy.^ 

The  school  of  Chartres  gained  new  distinction  under 
Ivo,  or  St.  Ives  (f  1116),  the  most  famous  teacher  of 
canon  law  of  his  times.     He  is  described  as  '  a  religious 

1  Cited  by  Clerval,  Les  EcoUs  de  Chartres,  pp.  32,  101  $eq. 
*  Vide  Clerval,  ibid.,  pp.  36  seq.,  130  set^.,  141  se<i. 
s  Vide  p.  21. 


26     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

man  and  of  great  learning.'  In  his  youth  he  had 
studied  in  Paris,  and  had  '  heard  master  Lanfranc,  prior 
of  Bee,  treat  of  secular  and  divine  letters  in  that  famous 
school  which  he  had  at  Bee'  ^  Anselm  was  his  fellow- 
student  there.  He  became  himself  a  teacher  in  that 
school,  and  then  went  as  abbot  to  St.  Quentin,  which 
he  made  illustrious  as  a  centre  of  learning.  To  theology 
and  the  liberal  arts  he  added  the  study  of  canon  law, 
and  probably  began  here  his  great  collections  of  Canons 
known  as  the  Collectio  tripartita,  Decretum,  and  Panormia, 
Ivo  had  already  attained  to  great  fame  as  a  teacher, 
when  he  was  made  bishop  of  Chartres  (c.  1090).  He  is 
the  last  bishop  of  that  see  who  is  known  to  have  taught 
in  the  school  ;  but  shortly  after  his  death  it  rose  once 
more  into  prominence,  and  so  remained  until  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  under  the  brothers  Theodoric  and 
Bernard,  and  their  pupils  Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  William  of 
Conches,  and  Richard  I'^lveque. 

Bernard  of  Chartres  (f  c.  1130)  became  chancellor  c. 
1119.  He  was  called  by  John  of  Salisbury  perfectissimus 
inter  Platonicos  seculi  nostri.     He  was  wont  to  say  : 

'  We  are  as  dwarfs  mounted  on  the  shoulders  of  giants,  so  that 
we  can  see  more  and  further  than  they  ;  yet  not  by  virtue  of 
the  keenness  of  our  eyesight,  nor  through  the  tallness  of  our 
stature,  but  because  we  are  raised  and  borne  aloft  upon  that 
giant  mass.'  * 

Poole  remarks  :  '  In  this  reverent  dependence  on  the 
ancients  lies  therefore  the  main  peculiarity  of  the  school 
of  Chartres.'  He  adds  :  '  It  is  the  choice  of  reading  that 
stands  out  as  the  salient  characteristic  of  Bernard's 
method,  and  marks  it  as  aiming  at  a  totally  different 
level  of  excellence  from  that  which  had  hitherto  been 
deemed  sufficient.'  ^      Among  his   many  noted  pupils 

1  Vide  Poole,  History  of  Medieval  Thought,  p.  114. 

2  John  of  Salisbury,  Metal or/itms,  iv.  35  ;  lii.  4, 

3  Poole,  History  of  Medieval  Thought,  pp.  117,  120. 


CH.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         27 

Gilbert  de  la  Porree  was  the  most  distinguished,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  as  chancellor  in  1126.  He  was  devotedly 
attached  to  Bernard,  and  wrote  to  him  from  Aquitaine 
where  he  '  kept  school '  : 

*  I  have  one  sorrow,  only  one,  which  tortures  me.  It  is  that 
I  am  constrained  to  remain  far  from  the  presence  of  a  teacher  so 
illustrious.  ...  I  would  fain  be  with  you  always,  when  you 
explain  the  mysteries  hidden  in  the  treasures  of  knowledge.  I 
would  draw  with  all  my  might  upon  the  limpid  and  inexhaustible 
source  of  your  wisdom.  Separated  in  body  from  your  Excel- 
lence, I  am  united  to  you  by  ardour  of  desire  and  by  the  heart, 
which  brings  near  what  is  far  ;  and  all  that  God  has  given  or 
will  give  to  me,  by  way  of  endowment,  virtue,  knowledge,  all  that 
I  am — after  God  I  owe  it  to  you.'  ^ 

Gilbert  was  called  away  to  Paris ;  and  two  other  pupils 

of  Bernard  carried  on  his  work  in  the  school,  William  of 

Conches  and   Richard  I'^fiveque.       William   (f  c   1154) 

was    '  post    Bernardum    Carnotensem    opulentissimus 

grammaticus.'  ^ 

'  With  him,  as  with  Bernard,  .  .  .  grammar,  dialectic,  and 
rhetoric  .  .  .  are  the  first  things  which  the  philosopher  must 
possess:  "with  them  equipped  as  with  arms,  we  ought  to 
approach  the  study  of  philosophy,"  first  as  learned  in  the 
sciences  of  the  Quadrivium,  and  finally  in  Theology.  .  .  .  But 
the  basis  of  the  whole  is  grammar :  "  in  omni  doctrina  gram- 
matica  praecedit."     This  is  the  mark  of  the  school  of  Chartres.'  * 

Richard  V^veque  united  with  William  in  '  perpetuating 
the  teaching  of  Bernard,  and  thus  carried  on  a  sound  and 
healthy  tradition.  .  .  .  The  general  method  of  the  school 
was  founded  on  the  scheme  of  education  laid  down  by 
Quintilian.'  *  Clerval  says  that  Chartres  was  the  centre 
of  a  universal  renaissance  of  learning,  showing  a  love  for 
profane  antiquity  and  a  passion  for  its  -WTiters,  its  poets 
and  philosophers.     Greedy  for  knowledge,  this  school 

1  Vide  Clerval,  Les  Ecoles  de  Chartres  au  moyen  dge.  p.  219.      , 

2  John  of  Salisbury,  Metalogicus,  i.  5;  vide  Clerval,  Les  Ecoles  de 
Chartres  au  moyen  dge,  p.  181. 

3  Poole,  Ilisiory  of  Medieval  Thought,  p.  125.  *  Sandys,  i.  p.  539. 

VOL.  II.  C 


28      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [ft.  l 

searched  for  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  of  Ptolemy,  and  of 
other  Greek  authors,  even  among  the  Arabs  of  Spain, 
and  enlarged  the  circle  of  culture.^ 

Other  cathedrals  had  distinguished  scholars.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  Hildebert  (f  1134),  bishop  of 
Le  Mans,  and  later  archbishop  of  Tours.  He  was  noted 
for  his  letters,  which  were  '  studied,  and  even  learnt 
by  heart,  as  patterns  of  epistolary  composition  '  ;  ^  and 
also,  still  more,  as  the  first  Latin  writer  to  compose  a 
system  of  doctrine.  His  Tractatus  theologicus  is  a 
Positive  Theology,  using  the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers, 
and  among  the  latter  especially  Augustine.  But  he 
also  uses  dialectic,  and  indulges  in  a  great  amount  of 
scholastic  speculation. 

The  work  has  forty-one  chapters  and  treats  of  faith  and  its 
objects  (Chapters  i.-iii.),  the  Trinity  (iv.-viii.),  prescience,  pre- 
destination, the  will  and  the  omnipotence  of  God  (ix.-xi.),  the 
incarnation  and  nature  of  Christ  (xii.-xvi.),  angels  {xvii.-xxii.), 
the  creation  (xxiii.-xxv.),  human  nature,  sin  and  virtue  (xxvi.- 
xxxix.),  the  sacraments  (xl.),  the  divine  Law  (xH.).^ 

There  were  other  chapters,  which  have  not  been  pre- 
served. Hildebert  was  the  first  to  use  the  term  trans- 
suhstantiatio.^ 

3.  The  cathedral  school  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris 
became,  in  the  twelfth  century,  the  most  prominent  in 
France,  under  a  number  of  famous  teachers,  the  first  of 
whom  was  William  of  Champeaux.  William  (t  1121) 
studied  with  the  philosopher  Manegold,  with  Anselm  of 
Laon,  and  with  Roscelin.  He  himself  taught  at  Paris  a 
crowd  of  students  from  all  parts,  at  first  in  the  cathedral 
school,  and  then  (c.  1108)  in  the  monastic  school  of  St. 
Victor,  where  his  influence  was  long  felt.     '  In  those 

1  Clerval,  Le.f  Ecoles  de  Chartres,  p.  272.  2  Sandys,  i.  p.  551. 

3  Vide  Fliigge,  Geschichte  der  theologischen  Wissenschafien,  iii.  pp. 
387  seq. 

*  Vide  Harnack,  Dogmengeschichte,  p.  303  {Grundriss  der  theolch 
gischen  Wissenschafien). 


CH.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         29 

days,'  as  Poole  says,  '  the  school  followed  the  teacher, 
not  the  teacher  the  school.'  ^  William  taught  rhetoric 
and  dialectic  as  well  as  theology  ;  and  came  into  con- 
flict with  his  pupil  Abelard  as  an  advocate  of  Realism. 
But  as  a  theologian  his  method  was  that  known  as 
Positive  Theology,  the  Theology  of  the  Fathers.  He 
retained  the  friendship  of  St.  Bernard,  and  was  even, 
according  to  Fisher,  '  in  some  sense  (his)  guide.'  ^  In 
1113  WilHam  was  called  from  Paris  to  become  bishop  of 
Chalons.  After  his  departure  from  the  cathedral  school 
students  still  continued  to  flock  there,  and  it  attained 
new  celebrity  under  the  pupils  of  William.^ 

5.  The  brilliant  Abelard  taught  a  multitude  of  students, 
attracted  by  his  new  method  of  speculative  inquiry,  with 
which  he  enriched  Positive  Theology. 

Abelard  (1079-1142)  was  for  a  time  a  pupil  of  Roscelin 
of  Compiegne  ;  then,  after  visiting  other  schools,  he  went 
to  Paris  to  study  with  William  of  Champeaux.  He  came 
into  conflict  with  this  teacher,  and  overpowered  him  by 
a  skilful  use  of  dialectic,  winning  for  himself  a  great 
reputation.  WTien  William  retired  to  the  monastery  of 
St.  Victor,  Abelard  sought  his  class-room  there  ;  but  the 
old  conflict  was  soon  renew^ed.  In  the  meanwhile 
Abelard  also  had  acquired  a  great  body  of  followers, 
who  went  about  with  him  from  place  to  place,  '  to 
Corbeil,  to  Melun,  to  Provins,  to  Saint  Denis,  and  into 
Brittany.'  *  At  the  time  that  William  left  Paris  for 
Chalons,  Abelard  went  to  Laon  to  study  theology  with 
Anselm  ;  but,  professing  to  find  that  famous  teacher 
'  a  barren  fig-tree,'  he  began  a  rival  course  of  lectures — 
a  breach  of  order  which  led  to  his  expulsion.  Returning 
to  Paris  he  took  William's  place  at  the  head  of  the 

1  Poole,  History  of  Medieval  Thought,  p.  109. 
8  Fisher,  History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  p,  226. 
»  Vide  pp.  31  ff. 
*  Maitre,  Les  ..icoles  ipisc.  et  monast.,  p.  145. 


ao     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [ft.  l 

cathedral  school.  Some  years  later  he  entered  the 
monastery  of  St.  Denis,  and  students  flocked  to  him 
there  also.  During  his  several  residences  in  Paris  he 
greatly  increased  the  renown  of  that  seat  of  learning, 
especially  when  he  taught  in  the  school  attached  to  the 
collegiate  church  of  St.  Genevieve.  Abelard's  methods 
were  speculative  and  critical.  His  aim  was  to  seek  the 
truth  by  inquiry,  and  not  from  authority.  '  By  doubt- 
ing we  are  led  to  inquire  ;  by  inquiry  we  perceive  the 
truth.'  ^  He  exposed  himself  to  suspicions  of  heresy  by 
the  boldness  of  his  speculation,  his  independence  of 
authority,  his  contests  with  all  other  teachers,  and  his 
open-minded  balancing  of  opinions  over  against  one 
another.  He  took  an  intermediate  position  between 
the  Nominalism  of  Roscelin  and  the  Realism  of  William, 
which  is  known  as  ConceptuaHsm,  and  is  nearer  the 
position  of  Aristotle. 

*  Universalia  ante  rem  la  the  watchword  of  the  Realists ; 
Universalia  in  re  of  the  Conceptualists ;  Universalia  post  rem  of 
the  Nominalists.'  * 

As  the  Nominalism  of  Roscelin  had  brought  him  into 
a  dilemma  between  Unitarianism  and  Tritheism,  and 
caused  him  to  be  charged  with  the  latter,  so  the  Con- 
ceptuaHsm of  Abelard  led  him  in  the  direction  of  Sabel- 
lianism.  His  treatise  De  unitate  et  trinitate  divina 
brought  him  into  trouble.  Otto  of  Freising  represents 
that  he  was  charged  with  having  '  effaced  the  dis- 
crimination of  the  Three  Persons,  which  the  Church 
held  to  be  not  mere  names,  but  distinct  things  with 
separate  properties.'  ^  All  of  his  teachers  were  against 
him,  having  been  alienated  by  his  audacious  and  un- 
generous criticisms,  by  his  vanity  and  overbearing 
manners.     A  council  was  called  at  Soissons  (1121),  and 

1  Abelard,  Sic  et  non,  pros.  17  ;  vide  Migne,  P.  L.,  clixviii. 

2  Fleming,  Vocabulary  of  Philosophy,  ed.  Calderwood,  1887S  P«  284. 

3  Poole,  History  of  Medieval  Though'.,  p.  152. 


CH.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         31 

he  was  condemned  ;    but  the  general  opinion  was  that 
he  had  been  treated  unfairly. 

A  more  formidable  attack  was  made  upon  him  by 
St.  Bernard.  He  had  composed  an  Introduction  to 
Theology,  understanding  by  theology  the  doctrine  of 
God  and  the  Trinity,  which  alone  he  discusses.  This 
Introduction  is  usually  regarded  as  the  first  attempt  to 
construct  a  philosophical  system  of  doctrine.  The 
method  of  Abelard  was  more  objectionable  to  the  tra- 
ditionalists than  his  results.  Because  of  his  method 
they  suspected  and  misrepresented  his  results.  St. 
Bernard,  with  his  immense  popularity  and  eloquence,  was 
a  formidable  opponent ;  and  Abelard  was  once  more 
condemned  in  1141  by  the  Council  of  Sens.  He  took 
refuge  with  Peter  the  Venerable  at  Cluny,  and  there  in 
the  following  year  he  died.  It  is  said  that  at  Cluny  he 
'  read  constantly,  prayed  often,  gladly  kept  silence.'  ^ 
According  to  Peter's  verdict  he  was  '  ever  to  be  named 
with  honour  ;  the  servant  of  Christ,  and  verily  Christ's 
philosopher.'  ^  His  writings  include,  besides  those  already 
named,  his  famous  Sic  et  non,  a  work  on  Ethics  called 
Scito  te  ipsum,  a  commentary  on  Romans,  Theologia 
Christiana,  Hexameron,  a  treatise  on  Dialectics,  and  an 
autobiography,  Historia  calamitatum. 

6.  The  cathedral  school  of  Paris  continued  to  flourish 
under  the  care  of  distinguished  teachers,  the  most  importavt 
of  whom  were  Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  Robert  Pulleyn,  and 
Peter  the  Lombard. 

1.  Gilbert  (c.  1070-1154)  was  bom  at  Poitiers,  and 
studied  in  the  episcopal  school  there,  and  afterwards 
at  Chartres,  Paris,  and  Laon.  Otto  of  Freising,  his 
pupil,  writes  : 

*  From  his  youth  Gilbert  placed  himself  under  the  discipline 
of  great  teachers,  relying  more  upon  their  authority  than  upon 

1  Vide  article  '  Abelard,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 

2  Vide  Poole,  History  of  Medieval  Thought,  p.  16u. 


32    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY        [pt.  i. 

his  own  genius.  These  masters  were,  first,  Hilary  of  Poitiers, 
then  Bernard  of  Chartres,  finally  the  two  brothers  Anselm  and 
Ralph  of  Laon.  With  them  he  acquired  not  httle,  but  great 
learning,  remaining  under  their  control  a  long  time,  bringing  his 
manners  and  his  conduct  into  harmony  with  his  knowledge.'  ^ 

At  Paris  he  studied  with  William  of  Champeaux  and 
also  with  Abelard.  He  was  recalled  to  Chartres  by 
Bernard,  whom  he  served  for  a  time  as  assistant  and 
finally  succeeded  as  chancellor.  Some  years  later  he 
went  to  teach  in  Paris,  and  then  in  Poitiers,  where  he  was 
made  bishop  (1142).  His  chief  contributions  to  theology 
are  (1)  commentaries  on  the  Bible  in  the  form  of  glosses, 
an  elaboration  of  the  Glossa  interlinearis  of  his  master 
Anselm  of  Laon  ;  {2)  De  Trinitate,  a  work  attributed 
then  to  Boethius,  but  really  a  collection  of  several 
writings  on  the  subject  by  different  persons  at  dififerent 
periods.  This  treatise  brought  Gilbert  into  trouble. 
His  tendency  was  towards  Tri theism,  although  he  denied 
it.  Thus  Realism  had  its  perils  in  discussing  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  as  well  as  Nominalism  and  Conceptualism. 
Gilbert  was  attacked  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  in  a 
council  held  at  Paris,  1147.  No  agreement  was  reached, 
and  the  council,  adjourning  to  Rheims  in  the  following 
year,  became  hopelessly  divided,  so  that  Gilbert  escaped 
condemnation.  It  is  remarkable  that  he  seems  to  have 
retained  the  respect  of  his  bitterest  opponents.  One  of 
these  is  forced  to  acknowledge  that  '  though  few  were 
for  the  doctrine,  very  many  were  for  the  man,  and  did 
all  they  could  to  excuse  and  extenuate  even  opinions 
which  they  did  not  hold.'  Otto  of  Freising,  Gilbert's 
pupil,  denies  that  there  is  any  resemblance  between  his 
trial  and  that  of  Abelard. 

'The  case  was  not  the  same,  nor  the  matter  kindred.  For 
Gilbert  had  from  youth  submitted  himself  to  the  teaching  of 
great  men,  and  trusted  in  their  weight  rather  than  in  his  own 
powers.' 

1  Vide  Clerval,  Les  Ecoles  de  Chartres^  pp.  163  seq. 


CH.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         33 

John  of  Salisbury  remarks  : 

*  It  is  certain  that  a  good  many  things  are  now  handled  by 
scholars  in  public  which,  when  (Gilbert)  put  them  forward,  were 
reckoned  as  profane  novelties.  .  .  .  GUbert  was  a  man  of  the 
clearest  intellect,  and  of  the  widest  reading  ;  he  had  spent  sOme 
sixty  years  in  study  and  the  exercise  of  literature,  and  was  so 
ripe  in  liberal  culture  as  to  be  surpassed  by  no  one,  rather  it  was 
believed  that  in  all  things  he  excelled  all  men.'  ^ 

His  work  De  sex  principiis,  '  a  supplement  to  the 
Categories  of  Aristotle,  was  accepted  through  the  Middle 
Ages  as  second  only  in  authority  to  the  works  of  the 
founder  of  logic'  ^  An  unknown  writer  of  the  time  of 
Gilbert  declares  : 

'  He  was  a  master  most  celebrated,  intrepid,  learned,  and 
superior  to  all  the  other  masters.  He  was  a  logician,  theologian, 
moraUst,  dialectician.  Of  the  seven  arts  he  lacked  only  astro- 
nomy. .  .  .  He  might  himself  be  called,  and  with  reason,  another 
Boethius.'  • 

2.  Robert  Pulleyn  (f  c  1150),  an  Englishman,  taught 
both  at  Paris  and  at  Oxford.  He  was  finally  made  a 
cardinal,  and  died  in  Rome.  He  wrote  Sententiarum 
f-heologicarum  lihri  VIII.  A  pupil  of  both  William  of 
Champeaux  and  Abelard,  he  unites  Speculative  and 
Positive  Theology,  but  with  special  weight  upon  the 
latter. 

3.  The  most  important  of  these  three  scholars  was 
Peter  the  Lombard,  the  Magister  Sententiarum  (f  c.  1160). 
He  was  born  at  Novara,  Italy,  early  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  was  bishop  of  Paris  at  his  death.  He 
studied  at  Bologna  and  Rheims,  and  finally  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  studied  in  the  school  of  St.  Victor  and 
taught  theology  in  the  school  of  Notre  Dame.  He  was 
not  the  first  writer  of  Sentences.     Several  before  him  had 

1  For  these  citations  vide  Poole,  Medieval  Thought,  pp.  184  seq. 

*  Poole,  ibid. ,  p.^  132. 

'  Clerval,  Les  Ecoles  de  Charires,  p.  168. 


34     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

written  systems  of  doctrine  under  that  title,  as  we  have 
seen.  There  has  been  preserved  a  work  of  this  kind  by 
an  unknown  Bandinus,  which  so  closely  resembles  the 
Lombard's  work  that  some  kind  of  dependence  seems 
probable.  But  Peter's  Sentences  have  been  those  on 
which  all  the  Scholastics  build.  The  work  of  Peter  is 
entitled  Sententiarum  lihri  IV. 

The  first  book  discusses  chiefly  the  Trinity,  in  forty-eight  dis- 
tinctions ;  the  second  the  creation,  in  forty-four  distinctions  ;  the 
third  the  incarnation,  faith  and  morals,  in  forty  distinctions  ;  the 
fourth  the  sacraments,  in  forty-two  distinctions,  and  the  Last 
Things,  in  eight  distinctions. 

This  system  has  the  merit  of  simplicity  and  of  thorough- 
ness. The  theology  is  essentially  Augustinian,  although 
the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers  are  used  with  freedom 
and  skill,  after  the  manner  of  Positive  Theology.  The 
method  is  Aristotelian,  and  in  so  far  dialectical  and 
philosophical.  The  combination  of  the  dialectic  method 
with  Positive  Theology  is  so  sound,  that  the  orthodoxy 
of  these  Sentences  as  well  as  their  excellence  is  almost 
unimpeachable.  They  became  at  once,  and  remained 
for  generations,  the  compendium,  the  student's  text- 
book of  doctrine.  Peter  was  also  distinguished  for  his 
contributions  to  Exegetical  Theology.  He  took  the 
Glossa  interlinearis  of  Anselm  as  a  basis,  and  put  them 
in  a  new  form,  known  as  the  Magna  glossatura.  He  also 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Psalms,  Job,  and  the  Epistles 
of  Paul. 

The  most  distinguished  pupil  of  the  Lombard  was 
Peter  of  Poitiers,  who  carried  on  his  work  as  teacher  in 
Paris  for  forty  years,  succeeding  Peter  Comestor  in 
the  cathedral  school,  and  djdng  as  chancellor  at  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  His  lectures,  pub- 
lished in  part  as  Sententiarum  lihri  F.,  were  based  upon 
the  Sentences  of  his  master,  and  this  did  much  to  give 
them  the  currency  they  attained. 


en.  n.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         36 

7.  The  monastic  school  of  St.  Victor  in  Paris  became  an 
important  centre  of  mystic  theology  under  the  three  great 
mystic  theologians,  Hugh,  Richard,  and  Walter. 

The  collegiate  church  of  St.  Genevieve  was  reorganised 
in  1147,  and  the  chapter  of  seculars  became  a  body  of 
Canons  Regular.  The  change  was  disastrous  to  the 
school,  which  soon  declined  in  importance.  But  the 
monastic  school  of  St.  Victor  rose  to  eminence  through 
several  distinguished  teachers,  in  hostility  to  the  teachers 
of  the  cathedral  school.  The  chief  of  these  were,  in  their 
order,  Hugh,  Richard,  and  Walter,  all  mystic  theo- 
logians. 

1.  Hugh  (c.  1097-1141)  was  born  in  Saxony,  and  was 
trained  first  at  Hamersleben,  and  then  in  Paris,  at  St. 
Victor's.  He  was  especially  distinguished  in  exegesis, 
and  wrote  an  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures  entitled 
De  scripturis  et  scriptoribus  sacris  prcenotationes .  He 
recognises  only  twenty-two  books  as  belonging  to  the 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  excluding  the  Apocrypha. 
He  also  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  Judges, 
Ruth,  Kings,  Psalms,  Lamentations,  and  Joel,  and 
sermons  on  Ecclesiastes  and  Obadiah.  He  was  a 
positive  theologian  as  well  as  a  mystic,  and  wrote  many 
dogmatic  treatises,  a  comprehensive  system  of  doctrine 
entitled  Summa  sententiarum,  and  De  sacramentis  fidei, 
also  an  encyclopaedic  work  called  Eruditio  didascalica,  and 
a  commentary  on  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  He  was 
opposed  to  the  dialectic  method.  He  defines  the  three 
grades  of  speculative  mysticism  as  cogitatio,  w^ditatio, 
and  contemplatio. 

2.  Richard  (f  1173)  was  a  Scot,  a  pupil  and  friend 
of  Hugh.  Dante  describes  him  as  '  in  contemplation 
more  than  man.'  ^  His  works  include  six  books  on  the 
Trinity,  a  discussion  of  the  Incarnation,  and  comment- 
aries on  the  Song  of  Songs,  Ezekiel,  and  Revelation,  as 

1  Dante,  Paradiso,  x.  132. 


36     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY      [pt.  I. 

well  as  various  mystic  writings.     He  used  the  dialectic 
and  allegorical  methods,  the  latter  to  excess. 

3.  Walter  (f  c.  1180)  succeeded  Richard  as  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  St.  Victor.  He  wrote  a  polemic  work  : 
Contra  manifestas  et  damnatas  etiam  in  conciliis  hcereses, 
quas  sophistcB  Ahcelardus,  Lomhardus,  Petrus  Pictavinus 
et  Gilbertus  Porretanus  lihris  sententiarum  suarum 
acuunt,  limant,  roborant.  He  names  these  four  theo- 
logians, '  the  four  labyrinths  of  France,'  all  possessed 
by  the  spirit  of  Aristotle. 

8.  John  of  Salisbury  was  a  broad-minded  scholar. 
After  frequenting  the  various  great  schools  of  learning,  he 
became  himself  an  able  teacher  in  Canterbury  and  Chartres. 

John  (c.  1115-1180)  was  born  at  Salisbury,  and  studied 
*  in  all  the  schools  with  all  the  great  masters,'  of  France 
and  Italy  as  well  as  England.^  He  tells  of  going  about 
from  teacher  to  teacher  in  France,  very  much  as  students 
do  now  in  German  universities.  John  left  England  to 
study  in  Paris  c.  1136.  He  went  first  to  study  logic  with 
Abelard  on  Mount  St.  Genevieve,  and  took  lessons  in  dia- 
lectic for  two  years  with  Alberic  of  Rheims  and  Robert  of 
Melun  at  the  same  place.  Afterwards  he  went  for  three 
years  to  Chartres,  where  he  had  for  professors  William 
of  Conches,  Richard  I'lfiveque,  Pierre  Hehe,  and  others. 
Then  he  became  a  teacher  as  well  as  pupil.  Aristotle 
he  studied  under  the  guidance  of  an  Englishman  known 
as  Adam  du  Petit  Pont,  who  subsequently  became  bishop 
of  St.  Asaph.  Having  returned  to  Paris,  he  studied  logic 
and  theology  with  Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  and  theology 
alone  with  his  successors  Robert  Pullejm  and  Simon  of 
Poissy.  In  this  manner  the  studies  of  John  extended 
over  twelve  years.  He  gives  vivid  descriptions  of  his 
various  teachers.  Abelard  he  calls  '  the  Peripatetic  of 
Palais  ...  an  illustrious  teacher  and  admired  of  all  men. 
1  Clerval,  Les  Ecoles  de  Chartres,  p.  276. 


CH.  II.]    ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES         37 

At  his  feet  I  acquired  the  first  rudiments  of  the  dia- 
lectical art,  and  snatched  according  to  the  scant 
measure  of  my  wits  whatever  passed  his  lips  with  entire 
greediness  of  mind.'  Of  Alberic  and  Robert  of  Melun 
John  says  :  '  The  one  was  in  questions  subtle  and  large, 
the  other  in  responses  lucid,  short,  and  agreeable. . . .  They 
were  both  men  of  sharp  intellect,  and  in  study  uncon- 
querable.' Of  the  three  years  spent  with  '  the  Gram- 
marian of  Conches '  John  says,  'I  shall  never  regret  that 
time.'  Richard  I'fiveque  he  describes  as  '  a  man  whose 
training  was  deficient  in  almost  nothing,  who  had  more 
heart  even  than  speech,  more  knowledge  than  skill, 
more  truth  than  vanity,  more  virtue  than  show.'  Adam 
he  deems  '  a  man  of  exceeding  sharp  wits,  and,  whatever 
others  may  think,  of  much  learning.  .  .  .  He  used  to  say 
that  he  would  have  few  hearers  or  none,  if  he  propounded 
dialectic  with  that  simplicity  of  terms  and  easiness  of 
sentences  with  which  it  ought  to  be  taught.'  Master 
Gilbert  was  *  too  quickly  removed.'  Robert  Pulleyn 
'  Hfe  and  knowledge  alike  recommend.'  Simon  of  Poissy 
proved  '  a  trusty  lecturer,  but  dull  in  disputation.' 
John  concludes  : 

'  It  seemed  pleasant  to  me  to  revisit  my  old  companions  on  the 
Mount,  whom  I  had  left,  and  whom  dialectic  still  detained,  to 
confer  with  them  touching  old  matters  of  debate  ;  that  we  might 

by  mutual  comparison  measure  together  our  several  progress.     I^ . 

fpund  them  as  before,  and  where  they  were  before  ;  nor  did  thay 

appear  to  have  reached  the  goal  in  unravelling  the  old  questiqns, 

nor  had  they  added  one  jot  of  a  proposition.     The  aims  tiiat 

once  inspired  them,  inspired  them  still :    they  had  progresseoL  in 

one  point  only  ;    they  had  unlearned  moderation  ;    they  knew  / 

not  modesty ;    in  such  wise  that  one  might  despair  of  their^ — 

recovery.'  ^ 

John  became  an  important  man  of  affairs  as  well  as 
a  great  scholar.  He  was  attached  to  the  archbishop's 
court  at  Canterbury  under  Theobald,  Thomas  4  Becket, 

I  For  John  of  Salisbury  mde  Poole,  Medieval  Thought,  pp.  203  seq. 


38      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [ft.  I. 

and  Richard.  He  was  constantly  engaged  in  diplomatic 
missions,  and  crossed  the  Alps  ten  times.  He  was  the 
most  broad-minded  scholar  of  his  age,  and  '  for  thirty 
years  the  central  figure  of  English  learning.'  The  last 
four  years  of  his  life  he  was  bishop  of  Chartres.  His 
principal  work  was  entitled  Policraticus,  and  is  '  to  some 
extent  an  encyclopaedia  of  the  cultivated  thought  of  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century.'  ^  In  his  Metalogicus  he 
tells  us  about  scholars,  their  methods,  and  the  state  of 
learning.     According  to  Sandys, 

He  *  stands  out  as  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time.  He 
gives  an  analysis  of  the  whole  series  of  Aristotle's  treatises  on 
Logic.  His  Metalogicus  is,  in  fact,  the  first  work  of  the  Middle 
Ages  in  which  the  whole  of  the  Organon  is  turned  to  account,  and 
Aristotle's  own  criticisms  on  Plato's  doctrine  of  Ideas  appHed 
to  the  scholastic  controversy  on  universals.'  ^ 

John  also  wTote  Historia  pontificalis,  letters  of  great 
importance  for  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  time, 
and  commentaries  on  St.  Paul.  The  Lateran  Council  of 
1179,  which  decreed  that  every  cathedral  should  have 
its  teacher  of  theology,  was  attended  by  John.* 

9.  In  this  period  the  Eastern  Church  produced  few 
theologians  of  distinction.  The  chief  seats  of  learning  were 
Constantinople,  Thessalonica,  and  Mount  Athos. 

In  the  eleventh  century  the  only  writers  of  importance 
were  the  exegetes,  Theophylact,  archbishop  of  Achrida, 
Bulgaria  (t  1007),  and  Euthymius  Zigabenus,  a  monk  of 
Constantinople  (f  1118).  Like  the  Western  commenta- 
tors they  were  compilers,  and  reproduced  the  exposi- 
tions of  the  Fathers.  Their  exegesis  is  chiefly  that  of 
Chrysostom,  Theodoret,  and  the  Antiochan  school. 

In  the  twelfth  century  there  appeared  several  canonists 
and  polemic 'writers.     Eu^tathius,  archbishop  of  Thessa- 

i  Sandys,  i.  pp.  537  seq.  ;  Poole,  Medieval  Thought,  p.  218. 

8  Sandys,  i.  pp.  539  seq. 

*  Vide  Cierval,  Les  j^coles  de  Chartres,  p.  276. 


CH.  n.l      ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  CENTURIES       39 

lonica  (f  1193),  a  zealous  opponent  of  formalism,  became 
famous  both  as  a  reformer  and  as  a  commentator 
on  Homer.  Nicholas  of  Methone  (t  before  1166)  pro- 
duced important  polemic  works.  Theodore  Balsamon  of 
Constantinople  (f  1203)  wrote  commentaries  on  the 
Noinocanon  and  Syntagma,  erroneously  ascribed  to 
Photius,  and  a  series  of  Answers  and  one  of  Dissertations 
on  canon  law,  all  of  great  value.  Johannes  Zonaras 
wrote  works  of  importance  on  Church  history  and  law, 
dating  apparently  from  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Valuable  work  was  done  all  through  the 
Mddle  Ages  in  the  Eastern  monasteries,  where  the  works 
of  the  Fathers  were  diligently  studied,  copied,  and 
annotated.  Mount  Athos  and  Studium  were  the  chief 
centres  of  this  activity. 


40     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  ORIGIN   AND   GROWTH   OF  THE   UNIVERSITIES  IN 
THE   TWELFTH   AND   THIRTEENTH   CENTURIES 

The  study  of  theology,  which  had  so  greatly  revived  in 
the  eleventh  century,  increased  in  public  interest  in  the 
twelfth  and  attained  its  highest  development  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  especially  in  the  universities,  and 
through  the  great  scholastics,  who  were  attached  chiefly 
to  the  new  mendicant  orders. 

1.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  there  was  a 
great  revival  in  the  study  of  law,  both  civil  law  and  canon 
law,  favoured  especially  by  the  establishment  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bologna  under  the  famous  teacher  Irnerius. 

The  twelfth  century  witnessed  a  great  revival  in  the 
study  of  law,  due  doubtless  to  the  confhct  between  the 
popes  and  the  emperors,  which  Hildebrand  had  carried 
on  with  so  much  vigour,  and  which  was  to  continue 
through  the  entire  Middle  Age.  Both  sides  needed 
trained  lawyers  to  maintain  their  cause. 

The  study  of  law  had  been  carried  on  from  the  most 
ancient  times  in  the  great  Italian  centres,  especially  at 
Home.  When  the  Lombards  established  themselves  in 
the  north  and  Pavia  became  their  chief  seat  of  learning, 
it  also  became  a  school  of  law.  So  Ravenna,  the  seat 
of  the  exarchate,  had  become  from  the  seventh  century 
a  centre  for  the  study  of  law.  But  for  the  most  part  this 
branch  of  learning  was  studied  under  private  teachers, 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  41 

and  the  teaching  and  practice  were  closely  connected 
under  leading  lawyers,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical. 
In  the  eleventh  century  both  Lombard  and  Roman  law 
were  certainly  taught  in  the  school  of  Pavia.  But 
Ravenna  seems  to  have  been  the  chief  law  school  in  the 
last  half  of  the  eleventh  century.^ 

Bologna,  which  had  long  been  famous  as  a  school  of 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  began  in  the  twelfth  century  to 
be  a  legal  centre.  The  origin  of  the  law  school  at  Bologna 
is  involved  in  some  obscurity.  It  first  comes  into 
prominence  with  Irnerius  (1100-1130),  a  teacher  of 
Roman  civil  law.  He  had  been  preceded  by  Pepo, 
who  lectured  on  the  '  Old  Digest.'  The  whole  of  the 
Digest  was  probably  first  discussed  by  Irnerius.  The 
great  increase  of  students  of  law  brought  about  the 
separation  of  these  students  from  all  others.  All  the 
students  began  to  organise  themselves  into  guilds  for 
self-protection,  defence  and  mutual  assistance,  dividing 
themselves  into  four  nations  ;  and  so  the  schools  of 
Bologna  became  a  university  of  students,  an  organisation 
of  students,  electing  their  own  officers.  The  teachers 
also  organised  themselves  for  mutual  protection  into  a 
guild,  and  thus  the  University  of  Bologna  originated. 

The  canon  law  was  developing  alongside  of  the  civil 
law.  The  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals  had  given  it  a 
great  impulse  in  the  ninth  century  ;  and,  on  the  basis 
of  these,  other  compilations  of  papal  decrees  were  made. 
In  the  eleventh  century  the  chief  were  :  the  Decretum 
of  Burchard  of  Worms  (1012-1023),  the  Collectio  canonum 
of  Anselm  of  Lucca  (f  1086),  the  Liber  canonum  of 
Cardinal  Deusdedit  (f  1086-1087).  In  the  first  part  of  the 
twelfth  century  the  Panormia  of  Ivo  of  Chartres  (f  c, 
1116),  and  the  Decretum,  probably  by  the  same  author, 
were  the  most  complete  collections.  They  were  the 
basis  of  the  Decretum  of  Gratian,  which  became  the  great 
1   Vide  Rashdall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  i.  p.  107. 


42      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

text-book  for  canon  law,  the  basis  for  all  mediaeval 
canonists.  The  proper  title  of  Gratian's  compilation  is  : 
Concordantia  discordantium  Canonum.  It  was  probably 
published  in  1142.^  Gratian  was  a  Camaldulensian 
monk  and  a  teacher  of  canon  law  at  Bologna.  Roland 
Bandinelli,  a  cotemporary  of  Gratian,  a  teacher  of 
theology  at  Bologna  and  afterwards  Pope  Alexander  in., 
also  wrote  a  Summa  of  canon  law,  which  has  been 
preserved. 

As  Rashdall  says  : 

'  Bologna  was  absorbed  with  the  questions  about  Investiture, 
about  the  relations  of  Papacy  and  Empire,  Church  and  State, 
Feudalism  and  civic  liberty,  while  the  schools  of  France  were 
distracted  by  questions  about  the  Unity  of  Intellect,  about 
Transubstantiation,  about  the  reaUty  of  Universals.'  ^ 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  canon  law  developed 
still  further  in  five  books  of  Decretals,  published  by 
Gregory  ix.,  to  which  Liber  Sextus  was  added  by  Boniface 
VIII.  The  Corpus  juris  cano7iici  was  completed  by  add- 
ing the  Clementines  of  Clement  v.,  published  in  1317, 
and  the  Extravagants,  extending  down  to  the  time  of 
Sixtus  rv.  '  The  Decretum  (of  Gratian)  was  a  text- 
book :  the  Decretals  were  a  Code.'     Rashdall  says  : 

'  At  aU  periods  of  the  Middle  Age  it  was  the  Canonists  who 
filled  the  most  important  sees  in  Christendom.  ...  It  was 
chiefly  through  the  Canon  Law  that  the  Civil  Law  transformed 
the  jurisprudence  of  nearly  the  whole  of  continental  Europe.'  * 

2.  The  University  of  Paris  grew  out  of  the  cathedral 
school,  owing  to  the  great  increase  of  professors  and  students 
in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  but  was  not  fully 
organised  until  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  chancellor  of  the  cathedral  of  Paris  had  the  sole 
authority  to  license  teachers.     As  the  teachers  grew  in 

1  Schulte,  Geschichte  der  Qudlen  und  Literatur  des  Canonischen  RechtSy 
i.  p.  48  ;  Rashdall,  1.  p.  132. 

2  Rashdall,  i.  pp.  139  seq_.  »  Ibid.,  i.  pp.  142  ieq. 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  43 

number,  there  was  not  room  for  them  all  in  the  cathedral 
precincts  ;  therefore  some  were  licensed  to  teach  on  the 
little  bridge  connecting  the  cathedral  isle  with  the  main- 
land to  the  south,  and  also  on  the  mainland,  the  students 
residing  wherever  they  could.  The  teachers  gradually 
came  together  in  a  guild  or  association,  somewhere  about 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  (1150-1170).i  After 
a  teacher  was  licensed  by  the  chancellor  he  was  initiated 
into  the  association  of  masters.  There  arose  an  in- 
evitable conflict  of  jurisdiction  between  the  chancellor 
and  the  association  of  teachers  ;  and  out  of  this  conflict, 
early  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  organisation  of  the 
university  was  born.  Apparently  this  conflict  arose 
after  the  death  of  the  great  teacher,  Peter  of  Poitiers 
(t  1205),  when  he  was  succeeded  by  weaker  men.  The 
teachers  appealed  to  the  pope  against  the  chancellor, 
and  the  pope  gradually  defined  the  relative  jurisdiction 
of  each  party. 

The  situation  in  Paris  was  complicated  by  the  rise  and 
suppression  of  a  dangerous  heresy.  At  the  beginning  of 
this  century  the  Arabian  version  of  Aristotle  made  its 
appearance  in  the  schools  of  Paris  in  a  roundabout  way, 
through  the  Arabs,  Moors  and  Jews  ;  and,  indeed,  in 
the  pantheistic  form  of  Avicenna  (t  1037)  and  Averroes 
(t  c.  1198).  This  originated  an  outbreak  of  speculation 
in  Paris,  under  the  lead  of  Simon  de  Tournai,  Almaric  of 
Bena  (f  1205-1207),  and  David  de  Dinant  (f  after  1215). 
In  1209  a  synod  of  Paris  began  to  suppress  their  followers 
by  a  bloody  persecution.  Some  were  burned  at  the 
stake,  others  imprisoned,  and  the  works  of  Aristotle 
upon  natural  philosophy  and  his  commentaries  were 
prohibited  by  the  council.  This  intellectual  movement 
was  cotemporary  with  the  outbreak  of  the  Albigenses 
in  the  south  of  France,  who  were  also  suppressed  by 
the  most  severe  measures. 

1  Rashdall,  i.  p.  294. 
VOL.  II.  D 


44      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

In  1215  Cardinal  Robert  de  Cour9on  made  for  the 
university  a  code  of  statutes,  a  sort  of  constitution  ;  but 
the  association  of  teachers  was  allowed  to  make  statutes 
(such  as  we  call  by-laws)  within  a  limited  sphere.  These 
statutes  contained  a  prohibition  of  the  physical  and 
metaphysical  works  of  Aristotle.  Gregory  ix.  renewed 
this  prohibition  in  1231,  with  the  reservation  :  '  until 
they  shall  have  been  examined  and  purged  from  all 
heresy.'  ^  This  reservation  was  due  to  the  influence  of 
the  more  correct  and  pure  translations  of  Aristotle 
directly  from  the  Greek,  which  began  to  make  their  way, 
especially  in  Italy,  immediately  after  the  conquest  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Latins  in  1204.  The  difference 
between  the  real  Aristotle  and  his  Arabian  interpreters 
now  gradually  became  evident.  In  the  meantime 
(c.  1219-1221)  the  masters  of  arts  were  organised  into 
four  nations,  as  were  the  students  at  Bologna.  Over 
each  of  the  nations  a  proctor  presided,  and  over  the  whole 
body  a  rector.  These  officials  are  clearly  discriminated 
for  the  first  time  in  a  document  of  the  year  1245.  The 
four  faculties  of  Arts,  Theology,  Law,  and  Medicine  were 
distinguished,  and  all  in  operation  ;  but  the  most  im- 
portant in  Paris  were  those  of  Arts  and  Theology.  The 
four  faculties  are  recognised  in  the  earliest  corporate 
act  of  the  university,  a  deed  of  1221. ^  The  chancellor 
of  the  cathedral  was  virtually  the  head  of  the  theological 
faculty,  although  not  himself  a  member  of  the  faculty. 
The  headship  of  the  whole  university  was  in  the  rector 
of  the  faculty  of  arts.  By  a  bull  of  Pope  Gregory  ix.. 
Parens  scientiarum,  the  university  received,  in  1231,  a 
charter  of  privilege,  called  by  Denifle  its  Magna  Charta.^ 

3.  The  University  of  Oxford  originated  in  the  latter  part 
of  the   twelfth    century,    probably   through   students   and 

1  Rashdall,  i.  p.  358.  »  Ibid.,  p.  324. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  339. 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  46 

jyrofessors  from  Paris  ;  the  University  of  Cambridge  soon 
after,  by  a  migration  from  Oxford, 

The  English  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  had 
an  obscure  origin.  They  did  not  develop  from  cathedral 
schools,  for  the  cathedral  of  Lincoln  was  about  120  miles 
distant  from  Oxford  ;  and  the  cathedral  of  Ely,  though 
not  far  from  Cambridge,  seems  to  have  had  nothing  to 
do  with  the  origin  of  that  university.  There  is  no 
sufficient  evidence  that  either  university  originated  from 
monastic  schools.  Rather,  like  the  university  of 
Bologna,  those  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  most  pro- 
bably originated  from  private  schools.  Oxford  had 
become  a  commercial  and  political  centre  in  the  eleventh 
century.  There  were  students  in  Oxford  early  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Theobaldus  Stampensis  had  sixty  to 
one  hundred  clerks  under  his  instruction  there,  prior  to 
1117.  Robert  Pulleyn  taught  theology  there  in  1133. 
Giraldus,  the  Welshman,  tells  how,  in  1184-1185,  he  read 
his  Topography  of  Ireland  to  students  and  doctors  of  the 
different  faculties.  Walter  Map,  archdeacon  of  Oxford, 
was  then  one  of  the  masters.  Richard  of  Devizes,  the 
chronicler,  writing  in  1192,  says  that  the  city  could 
scarcely  feed  her  clerks,  so  great  was  their  number.^ 

It  is  supposed  that  the  organisation  of  the  university 
was  due  to  the  recall  of  English  scholars  from  Paris, 
and  elsewhere  on  the  continent,  by  Henry  ii.,  in  1167 
or  1168.2  The  head  of  Oxford  University  was  a  rector, 
chosen  by  the  masters  of  the  schools,  and  himself  a 
master.  Later  he  became  subordinate  as  chancellor  to 
the  bishop  of  Lincoln. 

Cambridge  University  seems  to  have  originated  from 
a  migration  thither  of  students  from  Oxford,  due  to  a 
conflict  between  town  and  gown,  in  1209. 

There  were  two  nations  at  Oxford  with  their  proctors, 

1  Richard  of  Devizes,  vide  English  Historical  Society,  1838,  pp.  61  seq. 
8  Vide  Rashdall,  ii.  pp.  330  seq. 


46     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

the  northern  and  the  southern  ;  but,  in  1274,  these 
were  amalgamated.  In  1254  a  bull  of  Innocent  rv. 
confirmed  Oxford  in  its  '  immunities  and  ancient 
customs.'  The  oldest  colleges  were :  (1)  University ^ 
founded  by  William  of  Durham  (designed  1249,  begun 
1280)  ;  (2)  Merton,  founded  by  Walter  de  Merton, 
(designed  c.  1263,  begun  in  1264-1265)  ;  (3)  Balliol, 
founded  by  Sir  John  de  Balliol  (designed  1260,  begun 
1266). 
As  Rashdall  says  : 

'  The  great  work  of  the  universities  was  the  consecration  of 
learning  :  and  it  is  not  easy  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of 
that  work  upon  the  moral,  intellectual  and  rehgious  progress  of 
Europe.'  ^ 

4.  Early  i7i  the  thirteenth  century  a  widespread  revival 
of  religion  gave  hirth  to  the  mendicant  orders.  The 
Franciscan  order  was  founded  at  Assisi  in  1210,  the 
Dominican  at  Toulouse  in  1215.  These  were  followed  by 
other  lesser  orders.  All  of  these  furnished  scholars  and 
teachers  to  the  universities. 

Dominic  (f  1221),  the  founder  of  the  Dominican  order, 
was  born  in  Castile,  and  trained  in  theology  and  philo- 
sophy at  Palencia.  Under  the  influence  of  his  bishop, 
Diego  de  Azevedo,  he  undertook  to  lead  a  crusade 
against  heresy  by  a  body  of  preachers  trained  for  the 
service,  and  spending  their  lives  in  imitation  of  the 
apostles.  His  first  followers  he  sent  to  Toulouse  for 
training  in  theology.  The  Dominicans  were  essentially 
preachers  and  teachers  ;  and  they  established  them- 
selves in  the  great  cities  and  seats  of  education  :  at 
Bologna  and  Paris,  in  1217  ;  and  in  Oxford,  c.  1221,  at 
the  Church  of  St.  Edward  in  the  Jewry,  where  they 
opened  the  school  in  which  Robert  Bacon  taught  theo- 
logy. The  rule  of  the  order  required  eight  years  of  study 
in  theology  after  the  close  of  the  novitiate.  In  the 
1  Vide  Rashdall,  ii.  p.  693. 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  47 

latter  part  of  the  century  each  province  of  the  order  had 
its  own  studium  generale  ;  and  Dominicans  filled  the 
chairs  of  theology  at  Bologna,  Padua,  Vienna,  Cologne, 
Prague,  Oxford,  and  Salamanca.^ 

Among  the  scholars  trained  by  the  Dominicans  may 
be  mentioned  Nicolaus  de  Gorran,  preacher  and  exegete 
(c.  1210-1295),  whose  work  outhved  his  reputation.  His 
commentaries  cover  a  great  part  of  the  Bible,  including 
the  Gospels,  Epistles,  and  Revelation.  He  also  wrote 
Distinctions,  a  collection  of  '  sentences  or  thoughts  from 
the  Holy  Books,  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,'  of  which 
a  number  of  copies  still  exist.  His  sermons  also  have 
been  printed  in  several  editions.  According  to  Feret, 
his  commentaries  on  the  Catholic  Epistles  appeared  in 
Paris,  in  an  edition  of  the  year  1543,  under  the  name  of 
Thomas  Aquinas.^ 

The  Franciscans  were  less  intellectual,  and  rather 
mystic  ;  but  they  also  established  themselves  in  the 
great  centres  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  c.  1224,  and  at 
Paris  in  1230.  Their  founder,  iS^^  Francis  of  Assist 
(t  1226),  had  also  as  his  ideal  the  exact  imitation  of 
Christ  in  a  life  of  apostolic  service  ;  but  he  emphasised 
the  practical  side  of  that  ministry,  and  its  condition, 
voluntary  poverty.  '  When  once  these  orders  had  been 
founded,'  as  Sandys  says,  '  all  the  great  schoolmen  were 
either  Franciscans  or  Dominicans.'  '  The  first  Fran- 
ciscan to  open  a  school  at  Oxford  was  Agnellus  of  Pisa. 
He  it  was  who  introduced  into  the  Franciscan  school 
Robert  Greathead,  the  first  great  teacher  of  Oxford. 
Adam  Marsh  (t  1258),  the  friend  of  Greathead,  was  the 
first  Franciscan  to  lecture  there.  Roger  Bacon  calls 
these  scholars  '  majores  clerici  de  mundo.'  * 

1  Vide  Grtitzmacher,  'Dominic,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 
8  Feret,  La  Faculte  de  theologie  de  Paris,  ii.  pp.  511  sec[. 
'  Sandys,  i.  p.  573. 

*  Bacon,    Op.  tert.  (Op.  ined. ),  p.  75 ;  cited  by  Rashdall,  ii.  p.  25^ 
n.  3. 


48      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

The  Carmelites  settled  at  Oxford  in  1256,  the 
Augustinians  two  years  later,  and  lesser  orders  soon 
followed. 

6.  Several  other  important  universities  were  established 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  including  those  at  Naples,  Rome, 
Toulouse,  Padua,  Salamanca,  and  Lisbon. 

The  university  of  Naples  was  founded  in  1224,  and  was 
designed  to  be  the  centre  of  all  departments  of  learning 
for  the  kingdom.  But  the  school  of  Salerno  had  long 
been  a  fons  medicince,  and  the  attempt  to  establish  a 
medical  faculty  at  Naples  failed.  In  1231  the  right 
of  examination  in  the  department  of  medicine  was 
limited  to  the  doctors  of  Salerno.  In  1253  an  effort 
was  made  to  transfer  all  the  faculties  from  Naples  to 
Salerno,  and  to  unite  them  with  the  old  school  of 
medicine  in  that  place  ;  but  this  experiment  also  failed  ; 
and  in  1258  the  three  faculties  returned  to  Naples,  and 
the  faculty  of  medicine  remained  alone  at  Salerno. 
Eight  years  later,  however,  Naples  recovered  its  faculty 
of  medicine.  Innocent  iv.  established  in  Rome  (1244- 
1245)  a  university  for  theology  and  law.  In  Padua  a 
university  was  organised  in  1222,  and  re-established  in 
1260  by  a  migration  from  Bologna,  with  all  the  faculties 
save  theology,  which  was  added  in  1363.  A  number  of 
colleges  sprang  up  around  it  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  it  eventually  became  the  great  university  of  Venice. 

In  France  a  university  was  founded  at  Toulouse  by 
Pope  Gregory  ix.,  after  the  model  of  Paris  (c.  1229). 
In  Spain  universities  were  established  at  Salamanca  in 
1230,  and  ValladoUd  in  the  middle  of  the  century.  In 
Portugal  a  university  was  recognised  as  already  founded 
in  Lisbon  by  papal  bull,  as  early  as  1290,  but  was  trans- 
ferred to  Coimbra  (c.  1308),  and  after  several  migrations 
between  the  towns,  finally  settled  there  in  1537.^ 

1  Vide  Rashdall,  ii.  pp.  101  seq. 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  49 

A  number  of  colleges  grew  up  about  the  university  of 
Paris  in  the  thirteenth  century.  There  were  ten  mon- 
astic colleges,  founded  between  1209  and  1269,  including 
those  of  the  Trinitarians,  Dominicans,  Franciscans, 
Bemardines,  Augustinians,  Carmelites,  and  those  '  de 
Sainte  Catherine,  des  Premontres,  de  Saint-Denys,  de 
Cluny.'  Six  years  of  study  were  required  for  the  regulars 
and  seven  for  the  seculars,  before  the  Baccalaureat. 
Eight  years  of  study  in  theology  were  prescribed  for  the 
doctor's  degree.  For  three  years  students  devoted 
themselves  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  as  Biblici,  for 
one  to  the  Sentences  of  the  Lombard  as  Sententiarii,  for 
four  they  prepared  as  candidates  for  licence.  The 
candidate  had  to  be  present  at  the  '  public  acts  '  of  the 
faculty,  to  speak,  discuss  theses,  sustain  arguments  and 
preach.^  The  theological  course  was  extended  in  the 
following  century,  by  the  reform  of  1366,  over  a  period  of 
sixteen  years. ^  The  Baccalarius  Formatus  was  required 
to  give  lectures  on  the  Bible.  '  The  Secular's  lectures  on 
the  Bible  were  merely  delivered  "in  course" — because 
they  were  required  by  the  faculty  as  a  condition  of  pro- 
ceeding to  the  higher  degrees. . . .  The  "ordinary"  lectures 
on  the  Bible  were  delivered  by  "  religious  "  Bachelors. 
Each  of  the  mendicant  orders  in  Paris  .  .  .  was  required  to 
supply  a  fresh  lecturer  {Biblicus  ordinarius)  every  year.'  ^ 
So  there  was  no  such  neglect  of  Biblical  study  in  favour 
of  the  scholastic  theology  as  has  been  claimed.  In 
fact,  there  has  been  a  greater  emphasis  on  systematic 
theology  since  the  Reformation  than  before.  The 
difference  between  theological  study  then  and  now  is 
less  in  subject-matter  than  in  method  and  emphasis.' 
Then  the  emphasis  was  on  the  higher  exegesis — the  use 
of  the  Bible  as  a  means  of  union  and  communion  wjth  ^ 
God  ;    but  there  was  a  neglect  of  the  historico-crit|cal  / 

1  Vide  Peret,  ii.  pp.  41  seq.  2  yid^  Rashdall,  i.  p.  463. 

3  IbiiL,  i,  pp.  465  seq. 


60     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

in  favour  of  the  allegorical  method.  Now  the  neglect 
is  of  the  spiritual  in  Biblical  study.  The  difference  as 
to  the  subject-matter  of  study,  then  and  now,  is  chiefly 
in  that  gained  by  the  inductive  method,  especially  in  the 
realm  of  natural  science.  Outside  of  this  realm  there  is 
not  much  new  material. 

Of  the  secular  colleges  founded  at  Paris  before  the 
close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  eight  may  be  mentioned, 
i.e.  those  of  Constantinople,  St.  Honore,  St.  Nicolas  du 
Louvre,  St.  Victor,  Tresorier,  Harcourt,  Cholets,  and 
above  all  the  College  de  Sorbonne  (1257-1258),  founded 
by  Robert  de  Sorbonne  and  richly  endowed,  with  pro- 
vision for  all  expenses.  For  admission  the  study  of 
philosophy  was  required  as  well  as  the  liberal  arts. 
According  to  Rashdall,  the  Sorbonne 

'  was  a  college  for  men  who  had  already  taken  the  degree  of 
Master  of  Arts  and  were  desirous  of  entering  upon  the  long  and 
laborious  career  which  led  to  the  theological  doctorate.  .  .  . 
Originally  .  .  .  the  "  Sorbonne "  was  nothing  more  than  a 
college  of  theologians.  ...  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  however,  the  title  came  to  be  popularly  applied  to  the 
whole  theological  faculty  of  Paris.  .  .  .  Membership  of  the 
Sorbonne  .  .  .  became  an  honorary  distinction  which  was  usu- 
ally sought  by  most  of  the  theological  doctors  of  the  university. 
.  .  .  The  Hall  or  Schools  of  the  Sorbonne  became  the  scene  of 
disputations  and  other  public  acts  of  the  theological  faculty, 
especially  of  its  meetings  to  discuss  and  pronounce  judgment 
upon  heresies  or  theological  novelties.  .  .  .  According  to  Richer, 
all  doctors  of  theology  in  his  time  styled  themselves  Doctors  of 
the  Sorbonne.'  ^ 

The  course  of  study  embraced  ten  years,  but  by  the  close 
of  the  seventh  the  student  must  have  shown  some  ability 
as  teacher  or  preacher  to  be  retained.^ 

6.  Bobert  Greathead,  Alexander  of  Hales,  and  Vincent 
of  Beauvais  begin  a  series  of  great  doctors  of  the  Church. 
1.  Bobert  Greathead  (Grosseteste,  c.  1175-1253),  bishop 
1  Rashdall,  i.  pp.  488  seq.  *  Feret,  ii.  pp.  11  seq. 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  51 

of  Lincoln,  was  a  great  teacher  and  author,  an  ethical 
and  practical  theologian,  who  made  much  use  of  the 
Scriptures.  He  was  trained  in  Oxford  and  Paris  ;  and 
his  education  is  said  to  have  been  '  built  on  the  founda- 
tion of  the  liberal  arts  and  on  an  abundant  knowledge 
of  Hterature.'  ^  Matthew  of  Paris  calls  him  '  vir  in 
Latino  et  Graeco  peritissimus '  ;  ^  Gower,  '  the  grete 
derc  Grossteste.'  ^  He  dominated  English  thought  for 
two  centuries,  and  was  ranked  by  WycUf  with  Augustine 
and  above  Aristotle. 

Greathead  wrote  an  encyclopaedic  work  entitled 
Compendium  scientiarum,  classif>ang  all  departments  of 
knowledge  ;  also  Dicta  theologica,  and  many  other  works. 
He  gave,  in  Stevenson's  words,  '  a  powerful  impulse  to 
almost  every  department  of  intellectual  activity,  revived 
the  study  of  neglected  languages,  and  grasped  the  central 
idea  of  the  unity  of  knowledge.'  *  He  WTote  comment- 
aries on  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  and  John  of  Damascus, 
Aristotle  and  Boethius.  He  had  studied  Hebrew,  and 
in  his  work,  De  cessatione  legalium,  he  sought  to  convert 
the  Jews.  He  was  a  great  preacher,  and  a  devoted 
student  of  the  Scriptures.  In  a  letter  to  the  regents  of 
Oxford  he  wrote  : 

'  Let  the  foundation-stones  be  well  laid  ;  on  them  the  whole 
building  rests.  The  morning  is  the  best  time  for  study,  and  the 
good  old  Paris  custom  should  be  observed  of  reserving  those 
early  hours  for  the  lectures  on  Scripture,  giving  the  later  part 
of  the  day  to  other  subjects.' 

In  1235  Greathead  was  made  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and 
began  a  work  of  reformation  among  the  monks  and  the 
clergy  that  brought  him  into  conflict  with  both  king  and 
pope.  At  his  death  the  university  of  Oxford  certified 
Rome  of  his  '  splendid  learning  and  that  he  most  admir- 

1  Giraldiis  Carabrensis,  cited  by  Sandys,  i.  p.  575. 

2  Hist.  AngL,  ii.  467. 

»  Con/.  Am.,  It.  234  ;  vide  Sandys,  i.  p.  578. 

4  Stevenson,  Robert  Grossetfste,  p.  337  ;  vide  Sandys,  i.  p.  578. 


52     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY      [pt.  l 

ably  governed  Oxford,  in  his  degree  of  doctor  of  holy 
theology.'  ^  Associated  with  Greathead  was  Adam 
Marsh.^  These  were  the  teachers  of  Roger  Bacon  and 
many  other  distinguished  scholars. 

2.  Alexander  of  Hales,  Gloucestershire  (f  1245),  was 
'  the  first  of  the  Schoolmen  who  was  familiar  with  the 
whole  range  of  Aristotle's  philosophy,  and  with  his 
Arabic  commentators,  and  who  emploj^ed  the  same  in 
the  service  of  theology.'  '  He  was  called  doctor  irrefrag- 
abilis  and  theologorum  monarclia.  He  went  to  Paris,  to 
study  and  teach,  and  there  became  a  Franciscan.  His 
principal  work  is  his  Summa  universce  theologice,  com- 
pleted by  his  pupils  some  years  after  his  death. 

The  pupil  and  successor  of  Alexander  at  Paris  was  John 
of  Rochelle  (c.  1200-1253),  whose  chief  work  was  De  anima. 

The  establishment  of  the  mendicant  orders  in  Paris 
soon  brought  about  a  conflict  of  jurisdiction  in  the 
university.  The  friars  were  unwilling  to  take  part  in  the 
great  secession  of  the  members  of  the  university  from 
Paris  in  1229,  but  took  advantage  of  the  situation  in 
their  own  interests,  and  started  an  independent  theologi- 
cal school.  Roland  of  Cremona  and  John  of  St.  Giles 
taught  in  the  Dominican  convent,  the  latter  changing 
from  a  secular  into  a  regular.  Alexander  of  Hales  con- 
tinued in  the  Franciscan  convent  the  lectures  he  had 
begun  as  a  secular.  This  increased  the  friction.  Finally 
an  appeal  of  the  friars  to  Rome  resulted  in  a  papal  bull 
(1255)  authorising  the  chancellor  to  grant  licences  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  masters.  This  brought  the  con- 
fhct  of  jurisdiction  to  a  crisis.  It  became  clear  that  the 
friars  wished  to  have  all  the  privileges  of  the  university 
without  yielding  to  its  authority.  There  was  a  long 
struggle,  in  which  the  pope  continued  to  take  the  part 
of  the  friars,  until  the  pontificate  of  Urban  iv.  (1261),  a 

1  Vide  Drane,  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  pp.  484  seq. 
*  Vide  p.  47.  '  Vide  Sandys,  i.  p.  574. 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  53 

Parisian  canonist,  who  thoroughly  understood  the  whole 
situation  and  succeeded  in  restoring  peace. 

3  One  of  the  earliest  and  most  learned  of  the 
Dominicans  was  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (f  1264).  He  was 
tutor  to  the  sons  of  Louis  ix.,  and  wrote  De  instiiutione 
aUorum  regiorum  sive  noUlium.  He  was  the  author  ot 
the  greatest  encyclop^cha  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Speculum 
mundi,  written  in  four  parts  :  Naturale,  Doctnnale, 
Historiale  and  Morale,  the  last  completed  long  after  his 
death  (c.  1310-1320).  His  numerous  works  mcluded 
Tradatus  de  gratia  Dei  and  De  sancto  Johanne  evangelista. 

7.  The  three  great  scholars  of  the  thirteenth  century  were 
Albert  the  Great,  Bonaventura  and  Thonms  Aquinas,  who 
gave  shape  to  the  Scholastic  Theology  which  has  dominated 
the  Western  Church  until  the  present  day. 

I    Albert  von  Bollstddt,  Albertus  Magnus  (1193-1280), 
was  born  at  Lauingen,  not  far  from  Augsburg,   %vas 
educated   at  Padua,   and  became  a  Dommican.      He 
taught  in  convent  schools  in  Germany,  and  lectured  in 
Paris  (c.  1245)  and  Cologne  (c.  1248).     He  was  made 
provincial  of    the  Dominicans  at  Cologne   (1254)   and 
bishop  of  Ratisbon  six  years  later  ;   but  in  1262  he  re- 
signed and  returned  to  Cologne.     He  is  known  as  the 
Doctor  universalis.     Albert's  principal  theological  work 
is  his  Summa  theologice.     He  followed  the  method  of  the 
Lombard's  Sentences,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on  these 
in  three  volumes.     He  was  the  first  scholastic  to  use  the 
entire  Aristotelian  philosophy  in   systematic  arrange- 
ment in  the  interest  of  the  dogmatic  system  of  the 
Church  1     His  work  is  rich  in  detail  in  the  discussion  of 
all  kinds  of  subtle  questions.     He  taught  the  Aristotelian 
Realism,  and  made  the  important  distinction  of  the 
universale  ante  rem  in  the  Divine  IVIind  (Neo-Platomc 
and  Augustinian),  the  universale  in  re  in  the  Aristotelian 
1  Vide  Ueberweg,  GeschichU  der  Philosophie  (ed.  Heinze),  ii.  p.  287. 


54     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY      [pt.  I. 

sense,  and  the  universale  post  rem  in  the  human  mind. 
This  was  a  comprehension  of  Realism  and  ConceptuaHsm. 
Albert  was  also  the  author  of  commentaries  on  the 
Psalms,  Lamentations,  Daniel,  Baruch,  the  Minor 
Prophets,  the  Four  Gospels  and  the  Apocalypse,  sermons, 
and  a  commentary  on  Dionysius  the  Areopagite. 
As  Schafi  has  said  : 

*  He  traversed  the  whole  area  of  the  physical  sciences.  No  one 
for  centuries  had  been  such  a  student  of  nature.  .  .  .  His  know- 
ledge is  often  at  fault,  but  sometimes  his  statements  are  prophetic 
of  modern  discovery.' 

His  great  Study  of  Created  Things  is  *  an  attempt,  whose 
boldness  has  never  been  exceeded,  to  explain  the  great 
phenomena  of  the  visible  universe.'  ^ 

2.  Bonaventura,  the  Doctor  seraphicus  (1221-1274),  was 
born  in  Tuscany,  became  a  Franciscan  (c.  1238),  and 
studied  in  Paris  under  Alexander  of  Hales  and  John  of 
Rochelle.  He  succeeded  John  of  Parma  as  teacher  in 
Paris  in  1247,  and  as  general  of  the  Franciscan  order  ten 
years  later.  He  was  chosen  cardinal-bishop  of  Albano 
in  1273,  and  died  at  the  Council  of  Lyons,  where  he  spoke 
in  favour  of  union  with  the  Greeks.  Bonaventura  wrote 
in  defence  of  his  order  De  paupertate  Christi  and  Deter- 
minationes  questionum  circa  regulam  Francisci  ;  and  has 
been  called  its  second  founder.  His  principal  works  on 
theology  are  his  commentary  on  the  Sentences  of  the 
Lombard,  and  his  Breviloquium  and  Centiloquium.  He 
uses  especially  Augustine,  Anselm,  and  Hugh  and 
Richard  of  St.  Victor,  in  their  combination  of  the  mystic 
and  dialectic  methods.  Bonaventura  is  more  practical 
and  less  speculative  than  Albert.  Like  the  other  great 
mystics  he  sought  union  and  communion  with  God  in 
seraphic  vision.  The  difference  between  these  mystics 
and  the  great  dogmatic  theologians  was  chiefly  one  of 
emphasis.     The  mystic  uses  the  religious  imagination : 

1  SchaflF,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  v.,  i.  pp.  655  seq. 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  55 

the  dogmatist,  the  reasoning  powers.  The  one  is 
absorbed  in  mystic,  the  other  in  logical  contemplation. 
Mystic  contemplation  may  attach  itself  to  external 
things,  but  does  not  depend  on  such  things.  Gerson 
preferred  Bonaventura  to  all  the  other  doctors,  '  be- 
cause in  his  teaching  he  is  solid  and  sure,  pious  and 
just '  ;  because  he  abstains,  so  far  as  he  can,  from  all 
curiosity,  and  knows  how  to  avoid  secular,  dialectical,  or 
physical  matters  hidden  under  theological  forms  ;  be- 
cause in  working  to  enlighten  the  spirit  his  aim  is  by 
means  of  that  light  '  to  bring  piety  to  birth  in  the 
heart.'  ^  Bonaventura  wTote  commentaries  on  Luke, 
John,  the  Psalms,  and  Ecclesiastes.  He  uses  the  method 
called  Collationes,  or  Collativa  expositio,  a  selection  of 
important  passages  of  the  Bible  for  exposition,  and  the 
use  of  a  large  number  of  others  to  illustrate  and  con- 
firm these.  He  also  wrote  Postilla  seu  expositio  in 
Canticum  canticorum,  and  many  mystical  and  practical 
works,  including  Itinerarium  mentis  in  Deum,  and 
Meditations  on  the  Life  of  Jesus,  also  hymns  still  in  use. 
According  to  Sixtus  v.  '  nothing  more  fruitful  for  the 
Church  of  God  '  had  appeared  than  the  theology  of 
Bonaventura.2 

3.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  Doctor  angelicus  (c.  1225-1274), 
was  of  noble  birth,  and  was  educated  at  Monte  Cassino 
and  the  university  of  Naples.  He  became  a  Dominican 
in  1243,  and  was  sent  to  Cologne,  where  he  studied  under 
Albert  the  Great.  He  followed  his  master  to  Paris,  and 
some  years  later  back  again  to  Cologne.  '  This  long 
association  of  Thomas  with  the  great  polyhistor '  is 
called  by  Seeberg  '  the  most  important  influence  in  his 
development ;  it  made  him  a  comprehensive  scholar  and 
won  him  permanently  for  the  Aristotelian  method.'  ^ 

1  Gerson,  Opera,  ed.  Du  Pin,  i.  21 ;  Feret,  La  FaculU  de  theologie  ds 
Paris,  ii.  p.  300. 
*  Encyclical,  ed.  Peltier,  i.  p.  viii ;  cited  by  Schaff,  v.,  i.  p.  680,  n.  4. 
8  Seeberg,  '  Thomas  Aquinas,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 


66     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

Albert  is  reported  as  saying  of  Thomas  :  '  He  will  give 
forth  in  teaching  such  a  roar  as  will  resound  through  the 
whole  world.'  ^  Thomas  taught  himself  at  Cologne, 
Paris,  Bologna,  Eome,  Naples,  and  elsewhere.  He  is 
the  greatest  and  most  comprehensive  of  the  scholastics, 
and  the  standard  theologian  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  papal  encyclical  of  1879  praises  him  as 
'  inter  scholasticos  doctores  omnium  princeps  et  magister 
.  .  ,  veritatis,  unice  amator,  divina  humanaque  scientia 
prsedives.'  ^  Aquinas  sought  the  reunion  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Churches,  and  died  on  his  way  to  the  Council 
of  Lyons.  He  is  the  author  of  many  dogmatic  works, 
including :  a  Commentary  on  the  Sentences  of  the 
Lombard,  Qucestiones  disputatcB,  Qucestiones  quod- 
lihetales  XII.,  Compendium  theologice,  Summa  theologice, 
and  an  Exposition  of  the  Creed.  While  he  builds  on  the 
Lombard  and  Albert,  he  is  independent  in  judgment,  and 
more  comprehensive  and  able  in  his  scholarship.  It  is 
said  that  in  his  Summa  he  considers  over  three  thousand 
articles  and  fifteen  thousand  arguments  or  difiiculties.^ 
Among  his  apologetic  works  the  most  important  are  : 
Summxi  de  veritate  cathoUcce  fidei  contra  Gentiles,  Contra 
errores  Grcecorum,  and  De  unitate  intellectus  contra 
Averrhoistas.  Thomas  is  also  the  author  of  many  com- 
mentaries on  Job,  the  Psalms,  Song  of  Songs,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  Matthew,  John,  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  also 
of  Catence  on  the  Gospels.  He  uses  for  these  comment- 
aries various  terms  :  Continue  expositio,  Continua  glossa, 
Aurea  glossa,  and  Catena.  He  is  said  to  cite  more  than 
eighty  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers.  He  also  wrote  many 
works  on  philosophy,  including  thirteen  commentaries  on 
Aristotle.  He  is  called  by  Sandys  '  on  the  question  of 
"  universals  "...  a  Realist  in  the  moderate  Aristotelian 
sense.'  *    He  conceives  of  theology  and  philosophy  as 

1  Vide  Schaff,  v.,  i.  p.  663,  n.  1.  2  Vide  Scliaff,  v.,  i.  p.  662,  n.  1. 

s  Vide  Fliigge,  Theol.  Wiss.,  iii.  p.  621.  *  Sandys,  i.  p.  583. 


CH.  in.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  57 

searching  for  the  truth  by  different  methods.  *  Non 
eodem  ordine  utraque  doctrina  procedit.'  ^  '  In  his 
consideration  of  ethics,'  according  to  Schaff,  '  he  rises 
far  above  the  other  mediaeval  "^Titers,  and  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject.  He  devotes  to  it 
.  .  .  one  third  of  his  entire  system  of  theology.'  ^  Three 
of  his  h^TQns  are  in  the  Roman  Breviary. 

Among  the  other  celebrated  doctors  of  this  century 
three  more  call  for  special  mention. 

4.  Roger  Bacon,  Doctor  mirabilis  (1214-1294),  was  a 
Franciscan,  who  studied  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  and  taught 
in  both  universities.  His  teachers  at  Oxford,  Robert 
Greathead,  Adam  Marsh  and  Thomas  Wallensis,  were  all 
said  to  have  been  pupils  of  Edmund  Rich  of  Canterbury 
(t  1240),  of  whom  it  was  said,  '  (studebat)  discere,  quasi 
semper  victurus  ;  vivere,  quasi  eras  moriturus.'^  Bacon 
was  a  student  of  the  same  temper.  He  became  famous, 
especially  for  his  studies  in  natural  science  ;  but  produced 
important  works  in  philosophy  and  theology  also.  His 
principal  work  on  theology,  written  shortly  before  his 
death,  was  a  Compendium  studii  theologici  in  five  books 
(1292).  He  found  fault  with  the  scholastic  method  of 
instruction,  and,  in  his  Com^pendium  studii  pJiilosophice,  he 
criticised  at  the  same  time  Aristotle  and  the  great 
scholastics,  Alexander  of  Hales,  Albert  the  Great,  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  His  Opus  majus  treats  of  the  relations 
of  theology  with  science  and  philosophy,  and  the  study 
of  the  natural  sciences.  It  has  been  recognised  as  '  at 
once  the  Encyclopaedia  and  the  Organon  of  the  thirteenth 
century.'  His  Opus  minu^  abbreviates  the  former  work. 
His  Opus  tertium  reproduces  both  works  in  the  aphoristic 
form.     Bacon  writes  : 

'  Ignorance  of  the  truths  set  forth  by  the  ancients  is  due  to  the 
little  care  that  is  spent  on  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages, 

1  Vide  Schaff,  v.,  i.  p.  667,  n.  5.  2  viiU  Schafif,  ibid.,  p.  672. 

3  Vide  Sandys,  i.  p.  589. 


58     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

It  is  vain  to  object  that  some  of  the  Fathers  neglected  that  study 
and  misunderstood  its  advantages.  Worthy  as  they  are  of 
respect  in  many  ways,  they  cannot  serve  as  our  models  in  every- 
thing. ...  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures  without  knowing  Hebrew  and  Greek,  or  of  philosophy 
without  knowing  Arabic  as  well.  .  .  .  There  are  not  five  men  in 
Latin  Christendom  who  are  acquainted  with  the  Hebrew,  Greek 
and  Arabic  grammar.  .  .  .  There  are  many  among  the  Latins 
who  can  speak  Greek,  Arabic,  and  Hebrew ;  very  few  who 
understand  the  grammar  of  these  languages,  or  know  how  to 
teach  them.  .  .  .  The  scientific  works  of  Aristotle,  Avicenna, 
Seneca,  Cicero,  and  other  ancients  cannot  be  had  except  at  a 
great  cost ;  their  principal  works  have  not  been  translated  into 
Latin.  .  .  .  Slowly  has  any  portion  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
come  into  use  among  the  Latins.'  ^ 

*  In  urging  the  study  of  Greek  as  well  as  Hebrew,  he 
adds  : 

"  We  are  the  heirs  of  the  scholars  of  the  past,  and  (even  in  our 
own  interests)  are  bound  to  maintain  the  traditions  of  learning, 
on  pain  of  being  charged  with  infinite  folly."  '  ^ 

Bacon  himself  wrote  Hebrew  and  Greek  grammars.^ 
His  Epistola  de  laude  Scripturoe  sacrce  emphasises  the 
study  of  the  Sacred  Writings  in  the  original  languages. 
Bacon  was  suspected  of  magical  arts  and  heresy,  and  was 
imprisoned  in  a  monastery  for  ten  years,  but  was  tem- 
porarily released  by  Clement  iv.,  to  whom  he  sent  his 
three  encyclopaedic  works.  He  was  imprisoned  again 
in  the  time  of  Nicolaus  ni.  (c.  1278),  and  was  not  finally 
liberated  until  Nicolaus  iv.,  his  former  accuser,  had 
become  pope,  when  influential  friends  interposed  on  his 
behalf.4 

5.  Richard  Middleton,  Doctor  solidus  (f  c.  1300),  was 
also  a  Franciscan.     He  lectured  both  at  Paris  and  at 

1  Bacon,   Opus  majus,  18,  44 ;    Opus  tertium,  33,  55 ;    Compendium, 
ttudii  theologice,  Iv.  ;  cited  by  Sandys,  1.  pp.  590  seq. 

2  Bacon,   Compendium  studii  philosophic^,  434  seq.  ;   vide  Sandys,  i 
p.  594. 

3  Vide  edition  of  Nolan  and  Hirsch,  London,  1902. 

4  Vide  preface  to  Opus  maJus,  ed.  Bridges,  Oxford,  1897. 


CH.  m.]  THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES  59 

Oxford.     His  principal  works  are  QucBstiones  super  IV. 
libros  Sententiarum,  and  Quodlibeta.     He  was  one  of  the 
best  commentators  of  the  Lombard,  and  follows  him 
strictly.     He  was  also  a  skilful  interpreter  of  Scripture 
and  was  versed  in  canon  law.     His  writings  include 
commentaries  on  the  Pauline  Epistles  and  the  Gospels, 
De  distinctione  decreti,  and  other  lesser  works.     He  was 
held  in  great  esteem,  and  was  described  as  fundatissimus 
and  cofiosus.     A  scholar  of  the  fifteenth  century  calls 
him  '  doctor  profundus  et  magnse  autoritatis  in  scoHs.' 
Martigne  classes  him  with  Alexander  of  Hales,  Bona- 
ventura,  and  Duns  Scotus  as  one  of  the  four  great  teachers 
of  the  Franciscan  order,  and  cites  the  Life  of  a  Franciscan, 
a  bishop  of  Toulouse,  whose  great-nephew  was  taught  by 
Richard,  in  which  he  is  described  as   '  doctor  of  the 
university  of  Paris,  and  one  of  the  most  learned  theo- 
logians of  the  century.'  * 

6.  ^gidius  de  Columna,  Doctor  fundatissimus  (t  1316), 
a  Roman,  was  a  pupil  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  an 
Augustinian  monk.  He  studied  and  taught  at  Paris  for 
many  years,  was  made  general  of  his  order,  1292-1295, 
and  archbishop  of  Bourges,  1296.  He  spent  years  in 
the  papal  court  at  Rome  and  Avignon,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  written  the  bull  Unam  sanctam.  His  works 
include  commentaries  on  the  Sentences,  on  Romans  and 
the  Song  of  Songs  ;  also  a  treatise,  De  potestate  ecclesi- 
astica. 

8.  In  this  period  the  Syrian  Church  produced  a  scholar 
of  lasting  importance,  Gregory,  Bar-Hebrceus,  physician, 
theologian  and  philosopher. 

Bar-Hebrceus  (1226-1286)  is  described  by  Wright  as 
'  one  of  the  most  learned  and  versatile  men  that  Syria 
ever  produced.'  *     He  '  cultivated  nearly  every  branch  of 

1  Vide  Feret,  La  Faculte  de  theologie  de  Paris,  ii.  pp.  379  seq. 

2  Wright,  Syriac  Literature,  pp.  265  seq. 

VOL.  II.  E 


60     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.i. 

science  that  was  in  vogue  in  his  time,'  and  wrote  com- 
pendiums  on  many  of  them.  His  Sapientia  sapien- 
tiarum  is  an  encyclopaedia,  comprising  '  the  whole 
Aristotelian  discipline.'  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
Hippocrates  and  Galen,  grammatical  works  that  are 
'  now  well  known  and  appreciated  by  Orientalists,'  and 
verse  that  is  still  admired.  His  most  important  con- 
tribution to  theology  is  The  Storehouse  of  Secrets,  '  a 
critical  and  doctrinal  commentary  on  the  text  of  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  based  on  the 
Peshitta,  but  taking  note  of  the  various  readings  of  the 
Hebrew  text,  the  Septuagint,  and  other  Greek  versions, 
the  later  Syriac  translations,  and  even  the  Armenian 
and  Coptic,  besides  noting  differences  of  reading  between 
the  Nestorians  and  Jacobites.'  His  lesser  works  on 
theology  include  an  anaphora,  a  confession  of  faith,  and 
a  Nomocanon  of  great  authority  in  the  Jacobite  Church. 
His  historical  works  are  now  of  special  importance.  The 
Universal  History,  extending  to  1286,  has  been  brought 
by  other  writers  do\^Ti  to  the  year  1496. 


OB.  IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES   61 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  DECLINE  OF   SCHOLASTICISM   IN   THE   FOUR- 
TEENTH   AND   FIFTEENTH   CENTURIES 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  there  were  several  great 
scholastics  ;  but  they  divided  Scholasticism  into  different 
schools,  and  really  gave  the  impulse  to  the  decay  that 
followed,  by  their  criticism  of  the  great  scholastics  of  the 
previous  century. 

1.  Duns  Scotus  introduced  the  Scotist  school  of  Scholas- 
ticism, characterised  by  criticism  of  traditional  theories, 
and  emphasis  upon  the  will,  divine  and  hurmn. 

John  Duns  Scotus,  Doctor  suhtilis  (c.  1267-1308),  was  a 
native  of  England.  He  became  a  Franciscan,  studied 
in  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  took  his  degrees  of 
bachelor  and  doctor  in  Paris.  He  taught  successfully  in 
Oxford  and  Paris,  and  finally  in  Cologne,  where  he  died 
at  the  age  of  about  forty.  His  great  work  is  Opus 
Oxoniense,  a  commentary  on  the  Sentences  of  the  Lombard, 
abridged  in  Reportata  Parisiensia.  He  also  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  Aristotle's  De  anima,  and  Refutations, 
and  his  treatises  on  physics,  metaphysics,  and  meteoro- 
loc^ics.  His  writings  include  also  :  Gramm/itica  specula- 
tiva  ;  '  Disputationes  subtilissimcB  ;  Conclusiones  meta- 
physicce ;  Qucestiones  quodlibetales,  and  other  works.^ 
He  is  the  most  hair-splitting  of  ecclesiastics,  and  raised 
a  multitude  of  new  questions  ;  and  in  his  discussion  of 
1  Opera,  12  vols.,  Lyons,  1639  ;  26  vols.,  Paris,  1891-1895. 


62     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

the  older  ones  questioned  not  a  few  of  the  traditional 
answers.     As  Seeberg  says  : 

'  Characterising  God  as  Will,  and  finding  the  essence  of  man's 
nature  also  in  his  Will,  he  naturally  emphasises  the  individual 
and  his  freedom  in  his  view  of  humanity.  Thus  by  his  sharp 
criticism  of  traditional  theories  and  by  his  bold  creation  of  new 
terms  and  combinations,  he  set  forces  at  work  in  the  domain  of 
theology  which  did  much  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  stUl  more 
thoroughgoing  criticism  of  the  Reformers.'  ^ 

2.  William  of  Occam  began  as  a  Scotist,  hut  subse- 
quently made  a  new  departure  by  the  revival  of  Nominalism, 
which  continued  to  influence  theological  education  until 
after  the  Reformation. 

William  of  Occam  (c.  1280-1349)  was  born  at  Occam, 
in  Surrey,  England.  He  studied  at  Oxford  and  Paris, 
and  became  a  Franciscan  in  early  life.  He  taught  at 
Paris  for  some  years,  and  was  made  a  provincial  of  his 
order  (1322).  A  rigid  advocate  of  poverty,  the  original 
principle  of  St.  Francis,  he  was  imprisoned  and  finally 
excommunicated  for  supporting  Michael  of  Cesena  in  his 
attempts  to  reform  the  order.  Occam  began  as  a  pupil  of 
Duns  Scotus,  but  subsequently  made  a  new  departure  by 
his  revival  of  Nominalism  in  a  better  form,  which  con- 
tinued to  influence  theology  until  after  the  Reformation, 
and  some  schools  even  till  the  present  day.  Occam  was 
known  as  the  Doctor  singularis  et  invincibilis.  His 
writings  include  :  (1)  important  philosophical  works, 
the  chief  of  which  are  an  Expositio  aurea,  which  gives 
'  in  the  form  of  commentaries  on  Aristotle  and  Porphyry, 
Occam's  logic,  epistemology  and  metaphysic,' ^  and 
Summa  logices  ;  (2)  theological  works  :  Qucestiones  et 
decisiones  in  IV  libros  sententiarum,  Centiloquium 
theologicum,  Quodlibeta  VII,  De  corpore  Christi,  De 
Sacramento   altar  is,    De   prcedestinatione   et  futuris   con- 

1  Seeberg,  'Duns  Scotus,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 

2  Seeberg,  '  Occam,'  in  Xew  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 


CH.IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AKD  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES  63 

tingentihus  ;  (3)  many  practical  works  :  in  advocacy  of 
poverty,  the  chief  of  which  was  O'pus  nonaginta  dierum  ; 
and  in  defence  of  the  German  emperor,  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
against  the  intrusion  of  the  pope,  John  xxii.,  into  the 
domain  of  civil  affairs.     Seeberg  says  of  Occam  : 

*  His  historical  importance  rests  on  three  achievements  in 
particular :  he  carried  the  banner  of  nominalism  to  victory  in 
the  philosophy  of  his  age  ;  he  encouraged  the  critical  spirit  in 
regard  to  traditional  dogma,  and  taught  men  how  to  use  it  as  a 
counterpoise  to  ecclesiastical  positivism  ;  and  he  struck  out  a 
new  line  of  thought  as  to  the  relations  of  temporal  and  spiritual 
authority  of  Church  and  State.' 

He  is  said  to  have  been  '  the  pioneer  of  modern 
epistemology.'  ^  Luther  called  him  '  my  dear  master,' 
and  declared  :  '  I  am  of  the  Occamist  faction.'  Sandys 
follows  Mullinger  in  the  opinion  : 

*  His  chief  service  to  philosophy  is  that  "  he  brought  again  to 
Ught  .  .  .  the  true  value  of  the  inductive  method,  as  auxihary 
to  the  deductive."  '  ^ 

Several  other  nominalists  of  the  period  may  be 
mentioned  :  1.  Durand  of  Saint  Pourgain  (Porciano), 
Doctor  resolutissimus  (t  1334),  studied  in  the  Dominican 
convent  at  Clermont,  and  then  at  Paris,  where  he  became 
a  teacher,  and  a  doctor  (c.  1312).  He  was  made  Master 
of  the  Sacred  Palace  at  Avignon,  and  in  1326  bishop  of 
Meaux.  His  principal  work  is  a  Commentarius  in  IV 
lihros  sententiarum  Lombardi.  Durand  is  usually  classed 
as  a  nominalist ;  but  he  was  rather  a  critic,  and  inde- 
pendent in  his  judgment,  mediating  between  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  Occam.  He  stated  many  opinions,  which, 
if  not  heretical,  tended  that  way  ;  but  as  they  were 
tentative  and  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  Church, 
he  escaped  condemnation.  He  taught  a  kind  of  impana- 
tion  or  consubstantiation,  in  his  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist. 

1  Seeberg,  'Occam,'  in  Xew  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia, 
*  Sandys,  i.  p.  601. 


64     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

2.  Franciscus  de  Mayronis,  Doctor  illuminatus  (f  c. 
1325-1327),  one  of  the  principal  pupils  of  Duns  Scotus, 
taught  theology  in  Paris  early  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
His  works  include  :  Commentaria  in  IV  lihros  sententi- 
arum,  printed  at  Venice  ^  in  the  sixteenth  century  in 
many  editions  (1504  -|-)  ;  Expositio  in  VIII  lihros 
Physicorum  Aristotelis  (Venice,  1490,  1517)  ;  Passus 
super  universalia  et  prcedicamenta  Aristotelis  (Venice 
1517,  Boulogne  1479)  ;  commentaries  on  Anselm,  Diony- 
sius  the  Areopagite,  and  Genesis  ;  De  divinorum  nominum 
explanatioThe,  works  on  ethics,  sermons,  and  many  other 
writings. 

3.  Petrus  Aureolus,  a  Franciscan  and  Doctor  fcecundus 
(t  1322),  taught  at  Paris,  became  provincial  of  Aquitaine, 
and  finally  archbishop  of  Aix.  He  also  began  as  a 
follower  of  Duns  Scotus.  His  works  include  :  Com- 
mentarius  in  IV  lihros  sententiarum  (Rome,  1596-1605), 
Tractatus  de  conceptione  Marice  Virginis,  Tractatus  de 
paupertate,  Breviarium  Bihliorum,  Quodliheta,  Postilla 
superJoh,Isaiam  prophetam, s^nd  numerous  other  writings. 
Feret  remarks  :  '  To  judge  by  the  printing  of  many  of 
his  works,  and  above  all  by  the  large  number  of  editions 
of  the  Breviarium  Bihliorum,  the  thinker  in  Pierre  Auriol 
was  esteemed  no  less  by  the  following  generations  than 
by  his  cotemporaries.'  ^ 

4.  John  Buridan  (f  after  1350),  rector  of  the  university 
of  Paris,  was  a  pupil  of  Occam,  and  '  one  of  the  best 
known  of  the  supporters  of  (his)  revived  nominalism.'  ^ 
He  wrote  a  text-book  on  logic,  and  commentaries  on 
various  works  of  Aristotle,  including  his  Ethics.  Buridan 
is  chiefly  important  in  theology  for  his  researches  on  the 
freedom  of  the  will. 

5.  Bohert  Holcot  (f  1349),  an  English  Dominican, 
taught  theology  at  Oxford.     He  also  is  classed  among 

1  Also  Conjlatus,  Basle,  1489,  Lyons,  1579. 

s  Feret,  iii.  p.  355.  3  Sandys,  i.  p.  603. 


CH.IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES   65 

the  nominalists,  but  he  was  rather  an  intermediate  man. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Minor  Prophets  and 
Proverbs,  and  also  on  the  Sentences. 

6.  The  last  great  nominalist  was  Gabriel  Biel  (f  1495). 
He  was  bom  at  Speyer,  studied  at  Heidelberg,  became  a 
preacher  at  Mainz,  and  professor  of  theology  and  philo- 
sophy at  the  new  university  of  Tiibingen  (founded  in 
1477).  He  too  was  a  follower  of  Occam,  and  his  chief 
work  is  Epitome  et  coUectorium  ex  Occamo  super  I V  lihros 
sententiarum,  1495.  He  also  wrote  very  influential 
practical  works  :  Lectura  super  canonem  missce,  1488 ; 
Expositio  canonis  missce,  1499 ;  and  Sermones,  1499.  Late 
in  life  he  joined  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. 

3.  Raymond  Lully  was  a  Franciscan  of  another  type, 
whose  special  service  was  the  revival  of  the  study  of  the 
Oriental  langu/xges  and  of  comparative  religion,  connected 
with  missionary  effort. 

Raymond  Lully  (c.  1232-1315)  was  born  on  the  island 
of  Majorca  ;  and  his  life-work  was  from  the  Balearic 
Isles  as  a  centre,  although  he  taught  in  Paris,  Montpellier, 
and  elsewhere,  and  journeyed  to  Rome  and  other  parts 
in  the  interest  of  his  missions  to  the  Moslems  and  the 
study  of  the  languages  of  the  East.  He  became  a 
Franciscan  in  early  life,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  physics,  natural  philosox)hy,  and  the  Oriental  languages. 
He  wrote  against  Averroes'  philosophy.  His  most 
important  work  is  entitled  Ars  magna.  This  won  him 
the  title  of  Doctor  illuminatus,  and  '  seemed  to  offer  an 
easy  road  to  the  co-ordination  of  all  sciences  in  one  master 
science.'  ^  Rajmiond  greatly  promoted  the  study  of  the 
languages  of  the  East ;  and  through  his  influence  mis- 
sionary colleges  and  professorships  of  Oriental  languages 
were  established  at  Avignon,  Paris,  Bologna,  Oxford, 
and  Salamanca.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  writers  on 
J  Zijckler,  'Lully,*  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 


66     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

Comparative  Theology.  He  wrote  :  Liher  de  quinque 
sapientibus,  a  dialogue  of  disputation  between  a  Roman, 
a  Greek,  a  Nestorian,  a  Jacobite,  and  a  Saracen  ;  also 
Liber  de  gentili  et  tribus  sapientibus,  a  discussion  between 
a  Pagan  philosopher,  a  Jew,  a  Christian,  and  a  Saracen. 
The  former  may  be  regarded  as  Comparative  Theology, 
the  latter  as  Comparative  Religion.  Raymond  also 
wrote  a  number  of  practical  and  devotional  works,^  and 
still  has  a  reputation  among  his  countrymen  as  a  poet. 

4.  The  most  influential  Thomists  of  the  period  were 
Hervceus  Natalis  and  Thomas  Bradwardine. 

The  Dominican  order  continued  to  perpetuate  the 
teachings  of  Thomas  Aquinas.  1.  Hervceus  Natalis 
(t  1323)  studied  at  Paris,  and  taught  there  as  doctor  of 
theology.  He  was  one  of  the  most  noted  scholars  of  his 
time.  He  became  a  provincial  of  the  Dominicans  in 
1309,  and  general  of  the  order  nine  years  later.  He 
wrote  :  In  IV  Petri  Lombardi  sententiarum  volumina 
(Venice  1505,  Paris  1647),  Quodlibeta  (Venice  1486,  1513), 
De  intentionibus  (Paris,  1489,  1544),  and  many  other 
works.  Seeberg  calls  him  '  a  moderate  Thomist,  (who) 
distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  the  views  of 
Duns  Scotus.'  ^ 

2.  Thomas  Bradwardine  (1290-1349)  was  both  student 
and  teacher  at  Oxford,  and  became  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  1348.  He  was  a  Thomist,  and  especially 
an  Augustinian  ;  and  was  called  Doctor  profundus.  His 
great  work  was  De  causa  Dei  contra  Pelagium  (ed. 
Savile,  1618). 

Two  other  Dominicans  deserve  special  mention : 

3.  Johannes  Capreolus  (1380-1444)  became  a  doctor  of 
theology  in  Paris,  where  he  explained  the  Sentences.     He 

1   Works,  Mainz.  1721-1748,  in  ten  volumes,  ed.  Salzinger  (vol.  vii.  and 
viii.  not  publiNhed)  ;  earlier  edition,  1617,  incomplete. 
»  Seeberg,  '  Hervaeus  Brito,'  in  New  Schaf-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 


CH.IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES   67 

was  called  to  Toulouse  to  preside  over  the  studium 
generate  of  the  Doraiiiicans  there.  He  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  four  books  of  Sentences,  and  Defensiones 
theologice  divi  Thomce  (Venice  1483-1484,  1514  -[-),  which 
gained  him  the  surname  of  '  the  Prince  of  Thomists.' 

4.  Juan  de  Torquemada  (Turrecremata)  was  bom  at 
Valladolid  and  died  at  Rome  (1388-1468).  He  became 
a  Dominican  at  sixteen,  studied  in  the  monastery  of 
St.  Jacques  at  Paris,  and  was  licensed  in  theology,  1424. 
Returning  to  Spain,  he  was  made  prior  in  the  convents 
first  of  Valladolid  and  then  of  Toledo.  He  became 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  of  Eugene  iv.,  in  1431,  and 
an  ardent  defender  of  the  papacy  at  the  Council  of  Basle. 
Torquemada  wrote  many  treatises  upon  the  Church  and 
the  papacy  after  the  teaching  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  and 
also  upon  the  sacraments  against  the  Hussites.  He 
was  made  cardinal  in  1439,  and  was  active  at  the  Council 
of  Florence,  having  a  hand  in  the  composition  of  the 
decree  of  reunion.  His  writings  cover  a  wide  range, 
including  works  on  the  Scriptures,  dogma,  canon  law, 
the  sacraments,  and  practical  Christianity.  He  was 
called  '  the  honour  of  his  nation  and  of  his  order,'  '  a 
luminary  and  a  pillar '  for  '  the  Church  universal.'  * 

5.  There  was  a  great  revival  of  mysticism  in  the  four- 
teenth century  in  Eckhart,  Tauler,  Su^o,  and  Euyshroeck. 

1.  Meister  Eckhart  (c.  1260-1329)  was  a  Dominican 
mystic.  He  studied  at  Erfurt  and  Cologne,  and  became 
prior  at  Erfurt  and  provincial  of  Thuringia.  He  went 
to  Paris  to  study  and  lecture,  and  there  took  his  degrees 
(1300-1303).  He  was  made  provincial  of  Saxony,  and 
then  vicar-general  for  Bohemia.  In  1311  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  teach  in  Paris,  and  some  years  later  he  appears 
as  teacher  at  Cologne.     The  mysticism  of  Eckhart  was 

1  Scriptores  ordinis  Prcedtcatorum,   i,   p.   837  ;    cited   by   Feret,  La 
Faculte  de  theologie  de  Paris,  iv.  p.  336, 


68     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

extreme  and  tended  towards  pantheism.  He  said  and 
wrote  many  things  that  led  to  his  condemnation  by  the 
archbishop  of  Cologne  and  finally  by  the  pope,  to  whom 
he  appealed.  Twenty-six  propositions  were  condemned 
as  Error es  Ekardi}  He  is  said  to  have  submitted  before 
his  death.  He  was  willing  to  admit  the  eternity  of  the 
world.  The  Christian  may  be  converted  into  God  just 
as  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist  is  converted  into  the  body 
of  Christ.  Whatever  God  gives  to  His  only-begotten  Son 
in  human  nature,  all  that  He  may  give  to  the  Christian. 
Whatever  is  proper  to  the  divine  nature,  that  is  also 
proper  to  the  just  man.  External  acts  do  not  make  us 
good,  but  only  interior  acts.  *  Si  homo  commisisset  mille 
peccata  mortalia,  si  talis  homo  esset  rede  disfositus,  non 
deberet  velle  se  ea  non  commisisse.'  ^ 

There  are  in  such  statements  as  these  pantheism  and 
antinomianism,  the  forerunners  of  similar  tendencies 
in  modern  times.  Eckhart  combined  scholasticism  with 
a  mysticism  run  wild.  The  earlier  mystics  had  been 
Franciscans.  They  were  comparatively  sober,  and 
attached  the  mystic  element  to  the  scholastic  theology. 
The  later  Dominican  mystics  tended  towards  heresy. 
Protestants  ignore  the  heretical  tendencies  of  these  men, 
and  regard  them  as  '  preparing  the  way  for  the  Re- 
formation.' Eckhart  was  called  by  Hegel  '  the  father  of 
German  philosophy '  ;  by  Cruel,  '  the  boldest  and  most 
profound  thinker  the  German  pulpit  has  ever  had.' 
According  to  Pfleiderer  his  spirit  is  '  the  spirit  of  the 
Reformation,  the  spirit  of  Luther.'  ' 

2.  John  Tauler  (c.  1300-1361)  was  a  Dominican  of 
Strasburg.  He  is  known  to  have  come  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  mystics  Johann  Sterngasser  and  Nicholas 
of  Strasburg,  possibly  also  of  Eckhart  and  Suso.     Little 

1  Denzinger,  Enchiridion  Symholorum,  pp.  141  ieq. 

«  Ibid.,  pp.  501  seq. 

t  Vide  SchafF,  v.,  ii.  pp.  243,  248,  256, 


CH.IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES   69 

is  known  about  his  life,  and  of  the  works  ascribed  to 
him  only  the  Sermons,  and  a  part  of  these,  are  certainly 
genuine.  These  have  passed  through  many  editions,  the 
first  being  that  of  Leipzig,  1498.  Tauler  was  more 
practical  than  Eckhart,  but  no  less  pantheistic  and 
antinomian  in  his  tendency.  Yet  his  sermons  have  been 
great  favourites  with  Christians  of  the  mystic  type. 
Beza  called  him  a  visionary  ;  but  Luther  and  Melan- 
chthon  praised  him.^ 

3.  Henry  Suso  (1300-1366),  '  the  Swiss  mystic,'  was 
born  on  Lake  Constance,  became  a  Dominican  at  thirteen 
years,  and  studied  at  Strasburg  and  at  Cologne.  The 
greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  the  monasteries  of  his 
order  at  Constance  and  Ulm.  In  his  twenty-eighth  year 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Eckhart.  Suso  and  his 
writings  were  condemned  as  heretical  also  by  a  council 
of  unknowTi  date,  but  what  he  taught  is  not  clear.  The 
Book  of  Tnith  is  a  defence  of  Eckhart ;  The  Book  of 
Eternal  Wisdom  '  became  one  of  the  favourite  books  of 
meditation  of  the  Middle  Ages.'  *  Schaflt  quotes  Denifle 
as  calling  it  '  the  consummate  fruit  of  German 
mysticism.'  ^     Suso  was  beatified  by  Pope  Gregory  xvi. 

4.  John  Ruyshrceck  (t  1381)  was  prior  of  the  regular 
canons  at  Grondal,  near  Brussels.  He  was  called  Doctor 
ecstaticus.  His  works  were  written  in  Dutch,  but  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  his  pupils  Jordaens  and  Groote. 
They  include  mystical,  etliical,  and  monastic  treatises, 
and  a  short  exposition  of  the  Athanasian  Creed.  Ruj^s- 
brceck  shows  the  influence  of  Eckhart,  and  was  visited 
by  Tauler.  His  pupil  Groote  founded  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life. 

The  greatest  works  produced  by  the  mystics  of  this 
age  are  of  uncertain  authorsliip.     5.  The  Imitation  of 

1  Vide  Schaff,  v.,  ii.  p.  261. 

*  Cohrs,  'Suso,'  in  New  ScJiaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 

»  Schaflf,  v.,  ii.  p.  266. 


70     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

Christ  has  been  attributed  to  Gerson,  but  is  now  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  work  of  Thomas  d  Kempis  (f  1471), 
to  whom  are  ascribed  other  popular  works,  including 
meditations  on  the  life  of  the  Saviour  and  on  the  incarna- 
tion. Thomas  was  educated  at  the  famous  school  at 
Deventer  conducted  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Common 
Life,  and  is  called  a  follower  of  Groote.  Whatever  may 
be  thought  of  its  authorship,  De  imitatione  Christi  takes 
rank  with  the  Confessions  of  St.  Augustine  as  a  devotional 
book  of  the  universal  Church.^ 

6.  The  unknown  author  of  the  Theologia  Germanica  has 
been  called  '  one  of  the  Reformers  before  the  Reforma- 
tion.' Luther  published  this  work  in  two  editions 
(1516,  1518),  the  title  of  the  second  being  :  Ein  Deutsch 
Theologia.  He  called  it  a  '  noble  little  book,'  in  which 
he  had  found  his  God  '  in  the  German  tongue  '  as  he  had 
not '  found  Him  in  the  Latin  and  Hebrew  tongues.'  ^  It 
contains,  however,  pantheistic  elements. 

6.  The  Eastern  Church  had  also  its  great  mystics  at 
this  period,  chief  among  whom  were  Nicolas  Cabasilas  and 
Simeon  of  Thessalonica. 

1.  Nicolas  Cabasilas,  archbishop  of  Thessalonica 
(t  c.  1371),  was  a  cotemporary  of  Tauler ;  and  as  Adeney 
says,  the  two  '  agree  in  their  vital  principles.'  '  The  great 
work  of  Cabasilas  is  Concerning  the  Life  of  Christ,  in 
seven  books.  His  writings  include  '  a  mystical  exposi- 
tion of  the  Liturgy'  and  a  philosophical  work  against 
scepticism. 

2.  Simeon  (f  c.  1428),  also  archbishop  of  Thessalonica, 
was  an  influential  writer  and  '  one  of  the  chief  mystagogic 
theologians  of  the  later  Greek  Church.'  *  His  most 
important  works  were  :    The  Faith,  the  Rites,  and  the 

1  Vide  SchaflF,  '  Kenipis,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 

2  Schatf,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  v.,  ii.  pp.  242,  293  seq, 

•  Adeney,  The  O-reek  and  Eastern  Churches,  p.  282. 

*  Meyer,  '  Simeon,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 


CH.IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEEXTH  CENTURIES    71 

Mysteries  of  the  Churchy  described  by  Adeney  as  '  a  store- 
house of  ecclesiastical  archaeology  '  ;  ^  and  a  dialogue 
Against  All  Heresies.  He  also  wrote  expositions  of  the 
Nicene  Creed,  and  other  treatises. 

7.  The  chief  reforming  movement  in  the  fourteenth 
century  was  that  of  Wyclif. 

John  Wyclif  (c.  1325-1384)  was  born  in  Yorkshire  and 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  scholar  of 
Balliol,  and  then  master  (c.  1360).  He  was  interested  in 
mathematics  and  natural  science,  as  well  as  in  philosophy 
and  theology.  He  became  a  doctor  of  theology  not  later 
than  1372,  and  then  gave  lectures  on  theology.  About 
two  years  later  he  was  made  rector  of  Lutterworth, 
Leicestershire,  a  living  which  he  held  until  his  death. 
Wyclif  revived  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  sought  a 
reformation  of  the  Church,  especially  on  the  religious  and 
ecclesiastical  side.  He  was  sustained  and  protected  by 
John  of  Lancaster.  His  principal  writing  was  his  Summa 
theologice,  which  is  strongly  polemic  in  character.  Like 
Bradwardine  he  was  an  Augustinian.  He  was,  indeed,  a 
realistic  philosopher  ;  but  based  himself  chiefly  on  the 
Scriptures,  and  so  received  the  title  of  Doctor  evangelicus. 
With  the  help  of  his  associates  he  translated  the  Latin 
Bible  into  English,  assigning  to  himself  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  to  his  friend,  Nicholas  of  Hereford,  the  Old 
Testament.  The  whole  was  revised  in  1388  by  John 
Purvey.     Wyclif  wrote  : 

'  Christen  men  and  women,  olde  and  young,  shulden  study 
fast  in  the  New  Testament,  and  no  simple  man  of  wit  shulde  be 
aferde  unmeasurably  to  study  in  the  text  of  holy  Writ.  Pride 
and  covetise  of  clerks  is  cause  of  their  blyndness  and  heresie  and 
priveth  them  fro  verie  understonding  of  holy  Writ.  The  New 
Testament  is  of  ful  autorite  and  open  to  understonding  of  simple 
men,  as  to  the  pynts  that  ben  most  needful  to  salvation.'  * 

1  Adeney,  The  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches,  p.  282. 

2  Cited  by  Scliaff,  v.,  ii.  pp.  341  seq. 


72     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [ft.  i. 

Wyclif  opposed  the  abuse  of  the  allegorical  method  of 
exegesis,  and  exalted  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures 
above  the  authority  of  the  Church.  He  made  an  all- 
important  statement,  which  became  the  Puritan  watch- 
word in  later  times :  '  The  Holy  Spirit  teaches  us  the  sense 
of  Scripture  as  Christ  opened  the  Scriptures  to  His 
apostles.'  * 

Wyclif  established  an  order  of  poor  preaching  priests, 
who  went  about  like  the  earlier  Dominicans  preaching 
to  the  people.  These  and  their  followers  were  called 
Lollards,  and  were  speedily  declared  heretical.  The  re- 
forming energies  of  Wyclif  were  at  first  directed  against 
abuses  of  an  ecclesiastical  and  economic  kind  ;  but  his 
activities,  like  his  writings,  covered  a  wide  range.  The 
latter  included  :  De  civili  dominio,  De  officio  regis,  De 
incarcerandis  fidelibus,  .as  well  as  sermons,  polemic 
treatises,  and  the  famous  Trialogus,  Dialogus,  and  Opus 
evangelicum.  According  to  his  disciple  Thorpe,  '  from 
him  one  could  learn  in  truth  what  the  Church  of  Christ 
is,  and  how  it  should  be  ruled  and  led.'  ^ 

8.  The  reforming  spirit  was  transferred  from  England 
to  Bohemia  through  John  Huss,  who  adopted  essentially 
the  teaching  of  Wyclif. 

John  Huss  (1369-1415)  was  a  native  of  Bohemia,  and 
studied  at  the  university  of  Prague,  where  he  took 
his  degrees.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1400,  became 
dean  of  the  philosophical  faculty  a  year  later,  and  rector 
of  the  university  in  1402.  A  contest  over  the  rival 
popes  brought  about  a  secession  of  the  German  professors 
and  students  in  1409.  They  removed  to  Leipzig,  where 
a  new  university  was  established.  Huss  adopted  the 
views  of  Wyclif,  and  his  teaching  spread  with  great 
rapidity    all    over    Bohemia    until    the    mass    of    the 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  455. 

2  Cited  by  Loserth,  '  Wyclif,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 


CH.  IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AXD  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES   73 

Bohemians  had  become  Hussites.  The  archbishop 
appealed  to  the  pope,  and  Huss  and  his  adherents  were 
put  under  the  ban.  A  civil  war  ensued,  which  lasted 
for  a  long  time,  even  after  the  condemnation  of  Huss. 
He  was  summoned  to  the  Council  of  Constance,  and 
burned  at  the  stake  as  a  heretic  ;  but  he  died  pro- 
testing his  innocence,  saying  :  '  In  the  truth  of  the 
Gospel  which  I  have  written,  taught,  and  preached,  will 
I  die  to-day  with  gladness.'  His  writings  are  for  the 
most  part  polemic.  In  his  sermons  he  often  reproduces 
Wyclif.     In  pastoral  activity  he  was  '  unsurpassed.'  ^ 

The  friend  and  follower  of  Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague, 
was  not  long  in  sharing  his  fate.  Jerome  (f  1416) 
studied  in  Prague,  Oxford,  Paris,  Cologne,  and  Heidelberg. 
At  Oxford  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Wyclif,  and 
carried  back  with  him  to  Bohemia  two  of  Wyclif  s  writ- 
ings, the  Trialogus  and  the  Dialogus.  He  supported 
Huss  in  his  attempts  at  reformation  and  in  spreading  the 
teachings  of  Wyclif,  and  remained  true  to  both  these 
masters  until  after  the  death  of  Huss.  Then  for  a  time 
his  courage  gave  way  ;  but  at  the  close  of  a  winter's 
imprisonment  he  defended  both  them  and  himself  with 
great  spirit  before  the  Council.  Bracciolini  describes 
his  bearing  with  great  admiration,  crying  :  '  He  stood 
there  fearless  and  unterrified,  not  alone  despising  death, 
but  seeking  it,  so  that  you  would  have  said  he  was  another 
Cato.  ...  I  praise  not  that  which  he  advanced,  if  any- 
thing contrary  to  the  institutions  of  the  Church  ;  but  I 
admire  his  learning,  his  eloquence,  his  persuasiveness  of 
speech,  his  adroitness  in  reply.  .  .  .  Not  Mutius  himself 
suffered  his  arm  to  bum  with  such  high  courage  as  did 
this  man  his  whole  body.  Nor  did  Socrates  drink  the 
poison  so  willingly  as  he  accepted  the  flames.'  ^ 

He  suffered  on  the  very  spot  where  Huss  was  burned. 

1  Vide  Losertb,  *  Huss,'  in  Neio  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 

2  Cited  by  SchaCF,  v.,  ii.  pp.  390  seq. 


74     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

9.  The  study  of  the  Scriptures  was  greatly  promoted  by 
Nicolaus  de  Lyra,  Ludolph  of  Saxony  and  others. 

1.  Nicolaus  de  Lyra  (c.  1270-1340)  was  bom  at  Lyre, 
France,  and  died  at  Paris.  He  was  a  Franciscan,  and  in 
1325  was  made  a  provincial  of  his  order.  He  studied  the 
Oriental  languages  as  well  as  theology,  and  taught  at  the 
Sorbonne  for  many  years.  He  spent  his  life  in  the  study 
and  exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  and  thirty-eight  years 
in  writing  his  commentaries.  He  also  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Lombard's  Sentences,  Quodlibeta,  and 
three  books  against  the  Jews.  His  Postillce  are  written 
in  fifty  books  of  running  commentary  on  the  whole  Bible, 
including  the  Apocrypha  ;  also  thirty-five  books  of 
moralia.  There  are  three  prologues  :  (1)  a  eulogy  of 
Scripture ;  (2)  a  study  of  method ;  (3)  of  the  mystical 
meaning.  Lyra  mentions  the  four  senses  of  Scripture, 
and  then  says  : 

*  All  of  them  presuppose  the  literal  sense  as  the  foundation. 
As  a  building,  declining  from  the  foundation,  is  likely  to  fall ; 
so  the  mystic  exposition,  which  deviates  from  the  Uteral  sense, 
must  be  reckoned  unbecoming  and  unsuitable.' 

And  yet  he  adds  : 

'  I  protest,  I  intend  to  say  nothing  either  in  the  way  of  asser- 
tion or  determination,  except  in  relation  to  such  things  as  have 
been  clearly  settled  by  Holy  Scripture  on  the  authority  of  the 
Church.  All  besides  must  be  taken  as  spoken  scholastically  and 
by  way  of  exercise  ;  for  which  reason,  I  submit  all  I  have  said, 
and  aim  to  say,  to  the  correction  of  our  holy  mother  the  Church.'  ^ 

It  is  astonishing  that  Ljrra  accomplished  so  much  while 
working  within  such  limits.  However,  it  is  only  in  the 
field  of  the  spiritual  and  practical  interpretation  of 
Scripture  that  the  Church  has  ever  claimed  infallibility. 
It  is  certain  that  piety  and  communion  with  God  are 
absolutely  essential  to  an  understanding  of  His  Word. 

1  Nicolaus  de  Lyra,  Postillce perpetuce,  prol.  11.  ;  vide  Brlggs,  Study  of 
Holy  Scripture,  p.  454. 


CH.  IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES    75 

To  know  the  Bible  it  is  necessary  to  know  God  and  His 
Christ.  The  supreme  interpreter  of  the  Scriptures  is 
the  Holy  Spirit.  Lyra  regarded  the  Church  as  more 
completely  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  than  any  of 
its  individual  members.  He  therefore  submitted  all 
questions  of  faith  and  morals  to  the  decision  of  the 
Church  ;  and,  in  so  doing,  was  not  disloyal  to  that  funda- 
mental principle,  upon  which  the  greatest  leaders  of  the 
Church  in  all  ages  have  acted,  however  defective  their 
apprehension  of  it  may  have  been.^  He  exerted  a  health- 
ful, reviving  influence  on  Biblical  study,  and  is  certainly 
the  chief  exegete  of  the  Middle  Ages.  There  is  truth  in 
the  saving  :  '  If  Lyra  had  not  piped,  Luther  would  not 
have  danced.'  ^  By  Lyra  and  Wyclif  the  seeds  of  a  new 
exegesis  were  planted,  which  burst  forth  into  fruitful 
life  at  the  Reformation.^ 

2.  Next  to  Lyra  may  be  mentioned  the  Carthusian, 
Ludolph  of  Saxony,  who  flourished  c.  1330,  and  wrote  a 
life  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  became  influential  and  so 
remained  until  after  the  Reformation.  It  was  not  an 
historical  study,  but  was  useful  for  ethical  purposes. 
Ludolph  also  wrote  scholia  on  the  Psalms. 

Among  the  other  exegetes  of  the  time  may  be  men- 
tioned :  3.  Peter  Berchorius  (f  1362),  a  French  Domini- 
can, who  wrote  Ofus  reductorii  moralis  super  tola  biblia, 
in  thirty-four  books.  He  urged  tropology,  or  moral 
exposition. 

4.  Peter  Herentalius  (f  1436),  a  native  of  Flanders, 
wrote  Catence  on  the  Psalms  and  the  Gospels,  taking  as 
his  model  the  Glossa  contimia  of  Thomas  Aquinas  on  the 
Gospels. 

5.  AlphonsiLs  Tostatus  (f  1455),  lecturer  at  Salamanca, 
bishop  of  Avila,  and  lord  high  chancellor  of  Castile,  was 

1  Vide  Briggs.  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  484  seq.,  660  seq. 

2  Si  Lyra  nan  lyrasset,  Lutherus  nan  scdtasset. 
'  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  455. 

VOL.  II.  F 


76      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  l 

one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  greater  part  of  the  Bible,  published 
at  Venice  1728,  in  twenty-seven  volumes  folio,  which 
is  diffuse  and  dry,  but  learned.  His  Introduction  to 
the  Biblical  writings,  prefixed  to  the  commentary  on 
Matthew,  is  of  little  value. 

Laurentius  Valla  (f  1457)  returned  to  the  grammatico- 
historical  method  of  exegesis.  As  a  humanist  he  belongs 
rather  to  the  Modern  Age.^ 

6.  Bernardine  of  Siena  (f  1444),  a  Franciscan,  and  the 
first  Vicar-general  of  the  Observantists,  was  noted  for 
his  preaching,  and  was  called  by  Pius  ii.  a  second  Paul. 
In  addition  to  sermons  he  wrote  a  commentary  on  the 
Apocalypse. 

7.  Augustine  of  Rome  wrote  commentaries  on  the 
Epistles  of  Paul,  the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  the 
Apocalypse. 

8.  Paulus  Burgensis,  bishop  of  Burges  (f  1435),  is 
described  by  Flligge  ^  as  a  converted  Jew  who  showed 
many  traces  of  Jewish  learning.  He  wrote  Additiones 
ad  Nicolai  Lyrce  postillas  in  sacram  Scripturam. 

9.  John  Lattehur,  a  Franciscan  of  England,  wrote 
Moralia  super  Threnos  Jeremice,  and  commentaries  on 
Jeremiah,  the  Psalms,  and  the  Acts. 

10.  Many  universities  were  founded  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourteenth,  the  fifteenth,  and  the  early  sixteenth 
centuries,  the  most  important  of  which  were  in  Germuny 
and  after  the  model  of  Paris. 

In  Germany  were  founded  the  universities  of  Prague 
(1348),  Vienna  (1365),  Heidelberg  (1386),  Cologne  (1388), 
Erfurt  (1379-1392),  Wiirzburg  (1402-1582),  Leipzig  (1409), 
Rostock   (1419),   Treves   (1454-1473),  Greifswald   (1456), 

1  Vide  pp.  87  f. 

2  FUigge,  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  der  theologischen  Wiasenschaften,  iii. 
p.  272. 


CH.  IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES    77 

Freiburg  (1457),  Ingolstadt  (1459-1472),  Mainz  (1477), 
Tubingen  (1477),  Wittenberg  (1502),  and  Frankfurt  (1506). 

In  Italy  were  opened  the  universities  of  Perugia  (1308)  ; 
Pisa  (1343),  subsequently  the  university  of  the  Floren- 
tine government;  Pavia  (1361),  which  served  for  the 
Milanese  ;  Ferrara  (1391),  and  Turin  (1405). 

France  established  those  of  Avignon  (1303),  Cahors 
(1332),  Grenoble  (1339),  and  Orange  (1365),  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  eight  others  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

In  the  Low  Countries  the  university  of  Louvain  was 
established  in  1425. 

In  Switzerland  was  opened  the  university  of  Basel, 
1459. 

In  Poland  and  Hungary  were  founded  those  of  Cracow 
(1364-1397),  Fiinfkirchen  (1367),  and  Ofen  Pest  (Buda- 
pest, 1476-1477). 

In  Spain  a  large  number  were  founded,  including  those 
at  Lerida  (c.  1300),  Perpignan  (1349),  Huesca  (1359), 
Barcelona  (1450),  Saragossa  (1474),  Palma  (1483), 
Sigiienza  (c.  1489),  Alcald  (1499),  and  Valencia  (1500). 

In  Sweden  a  university  was  opened  at  Upsala  (1477). 

In  Denmark  one  was  established  at  Copenhagen  (1478). 

In  Scotland  three  were  founded  :  one  at  St.  Andrews 
(1411-1413)  ;  one  at  Glasgow  (1450)  ;  and  one  at 
Aberdeen  (1494). 

The  greater  universities  had  for  the  most  part  the 
four  faculties  :  those  of  arts,  in  which  instruction  was 
based  on  Aristotle  ;  medicine,  in  which  the  chief  text- 
books were  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  Galen,  and 
Avicenna  ;  law,  the  study  of  which  was  based  on  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  canons,  collected  in  the  Corpus  juris 
canonici  ;  and  theology,  based  on  the  Lombard's  Sentences. 

According  to  Rashdall, 

*  There  were  ...  in  every  university  town,  as  in  other  im- 
portant places,  grammar  schools  proper.  ...  In  many  cases  .  .  . 
the  university  acquired  jurisdiction  over  these  schools.     This 


78      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  i. 

was  the  case  in  most  German  universities.  In  others  they  re- 
mained under  the  ecclesiastical  inspection  to  which  they  had 
been  subject  before  the  rise  of  the  university  corporations.  .  .  . 
The  old  ecclesiastical  schools,  in  connection  with  cathedrals  or 
other  important  churches,  were  not  destroyed  by  the  growth 
of  the  universities,  and  other  schools  of  the  same  kind  were  founded 
from  time  to  time.  ...  In  districts  remote  from  universities 
there  were  ecclesiastical  schools  of  a  higher  type.  ...  In  some 
countries  the  bulk  of  the  inferior  clergy  must  have  received  their 
education  in  such  schools.'  ^ 

Rogers  says  : 

'  I  am  convinced  that  [grammar  schools]  were  attached  to 
every  monastery,  and  that  the  extraordinary  number  of  founda- 
tion schools  established  just  after  the  Reformation  of  1547  was 
not  a  new  zeal  for  a  new  learning,  but  a  fresh  and  very  inadequate 
supply  of  that  which  had  been  so  suddenly  and  disastrously 
extinguished.'  ^ 

11.  The  conflicts  between  the  rival  popes  involved  all 
Europe  in  political  and  ecclesiastical  confusion.  The 
University  of  Paris,  under  the  lead  of  the  great  mystics, 
D'Ailly  and  Gerson,  led  in  an  attempt  at  reform  through 
oecumenical  councils  ;  hut  they  simply  succeeded  in 
strengthening  the  papacy,  after  the  schism  was  healed. 

The  great  schism  in  the  papacy,  which  began  in  1378 
between  Urban  vi.  and  Clement  vii.,  the  former  at  Rome, 
the  latter  at  Avignon,  France,  involved  the  whole  of 
Europe  in  civil  and  ecclesiastical  war,  to  the  serious 
injury  of  religious  and  theological  education.  Various 
attempts  to  heal  the  schism  were  made  from  time  to 
time  ;  until  at  last  the  chief  civil  governments,  under 
the  lead  of  the  university  of  Paris,  determined  to  bring 
it  to  an  end.  Three  successive  reforming  Councils  were 
held  :  those  of  Pisa  (1409),  Constance  (1414-1418),  and 
Basel  (1431-1443).  These  reforming  Councils  were  ably 
and   conservatively   conducted ;     but   they   could   not 

1  Rashdall,  ii.  pp.  597,  601. 

2  Rogers,  Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages,  i.  p.  165 ;  vide  Rashdall, 
ii.  p.  600,  n.  2. 


CH.  IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES   79 

succeed,  because  of  the  unwillingness  of  the  papacy  to  be 
reformed,  or  to  submit  to  the  Councils,  and  because  of 
the  rivalry  of  the  civil  governments.     The  Council  of 
Pisa  deposed  both  of  the  rival  popes,  and  elected  a 
third  ;  but  as  neither  of  the  rivals  would  yield,  the  result 
of  this  action  was  that  three  popes  were  in  the  field. 
The  Council  of  Constance  succeeded  better  in  this  regard. 
John  XXIII.  was  deposed  ;    Gregory  xii.  resigned  volun- 
tarily ;    and  Benedict  xin.  could  be  disregarded,  as  he 
was   recognised   only   in   Peniscola,    a    small    town   of 
Valencia,  Spain.     A  new  pope  was  elected  (1417),  under 
the  name  of  Martin  v.  ;   and  apparently  the  schism  w^as 
healed.     This    Council,    however,    disgraced    itself    by 
violating  the  safe-conduct  of  John  Huss,  and  burning 
him  at  the  stake.    The  new  pope  failed  to  carry  out  the 
reforms  proposed  by  the  Council ;  and  so,  after  his  death, 
the  Council  of  Basel  was  summoned  to  deal  with  his 
successor,  Eugene  iv.     The  Council  suspended  him  in 
1438,  deposed  him  in  1439,  and  elected  as  pope  Ama- 
deus  of  Savoy  under  the  name  of  Felix  v.     As  Eugene 
would  not  submit,  two  rival  popes  were  in  the  field. 
After  his  death  the  cardinals  elected  Nicolas  v.  (1447- 
1455),  an  exceedingly  able,  wise,  and  irenic  pope,  who 
soon  persuaded  Felix  to  resign,  the  Council  to  dissolve, 
and  all  Europe  to  unite  under  his  jurisdiction.     This 
reunion  was  celebrated  by  a  Jubilee  at  Rome  in  1450, 
which  closes  the  period  of  the  Middle  Ages,  leaving  the 
papacy  at  the  height  of  its  supremacy  over  the  world. 

The  most  influential  men  in  connection  with  the 
Council  of  Pisa  were  Petrus  de  Alliaco,  bishop  of  Cambrai, 
and  his  pupil  John  Gerson,  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Paris. 

1.  Petrus  de  Alliaco  (Pierre  D'Ailly,  1350-1420)  was  a 
student  of  theology  at  the  university  of  Paris  (1372),  and 
lectured  on  the  Sentences  of  the  Lombard  from  1375 
onward.     In  1380  he  was  made  doctor  of  theology  and 


80     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY       [pt.  I. 

professor,  four  years  later  Director  of  the  College  of 
Navarre,  and  in  1389  chancellor  of  the  university. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Gerson  and  Nicolaus  Clemanges. 
He  became  bishop  of  Puy  in  1395,  of  Cambrai  in  1397, 
and  cardinal  in  1411.  He  wrote  on  many  subjects,  in- 
cluding :  commentaries  on  the  Song  of  Songs,  and  the 
Penitential  Psalms ;  Qucestiones  super  IV  lihros  sententi- 
irum,  which  were  nominalistic  ;  De  reforviatione  ecclesice, 
and  De  potestate  ecclesice.  He  was  especially  prominent 
at  the  Council  of  Constance,  where  he  maintained  the 
supreme  authority  of  oecumenical  councils.  He  also 
urged  the  cause  of  union  in  the  papacy  and  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  Church.  Yet  he  took  an  active  part  against 
heresy  in  the  condemnation  of  John  Huss.  D'Ailly  dis- 
tinguished between  the  Bible  and  tradition,  between 
pope  and  council  ;  and  as  a  nominalist  was  critical  of 
Scholasticism,  and  especially  of  the  exaggeration  and 
abuse  of  dialectic,  which  had  degenerated  into  mere 
sophistry.  At  the  Council  of  Constance  he  '  urged  the 
appointment  of  "  institu tores  Rhetoricse  et  linguarum 
Graecae  et  Latinse."  '  ^ 

2.  John  Gerson  (1363-1429)  studied  at  Paris  with 
Pierre  D'Ailly  for  seven  years,  and  succeeded  him  as 
professor  of  theology  and  chancellor  of  the  university. 
He  was  called  Doctor  christianissimus.  He  sought  to 
enrich  scholasticism  with  mysticism,  and  wrote  mystical 
and  practical  works,  and  commentaries  on  the  Song  of 
Songs,  the  Penitential  Psalms,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
with  mystical,  allegorical,  and  moral  interxDretations. 
He  also  wrote  Monotessaron,  a  harmony  of  the  Gospels, 
and  Propositiones  de  sensu  literali  sacrce  Scripturce  et 
de  causis  errantium,  in  which  he  states  the  principles  of 
catholic  hermeneutics  over  against  the  Hteralism  of 
heretics.  He  wrote  against  the  vain  curiosity  of  the 
degenerate  Scholasticism  in  matters  of  faith,  and  made 
1  Rashdall,  i.  p.  541,  n.  1 ;  citing  Von  der  Hardt,  i.  iv.  c.  427. 


CH.IV.]  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES   81 

the  profound  statement  that  '  those  who  prefer  the 
new  works,  conduct  themselves  after  the  manner  of 
boys  who  eat  the  new  and  bitter  fruits  rather  than  the 
mature,  digestible  and  healthful.'  ^  In  his  tract  De  modis 
uniendi  ac  reformandi  Ecclesiam  in  concilio  universali 
he  takes  a  general  view  of  the  Church  as  consisting  of  all 
those  who  believe  in  Christ,  '  be  they  Greeks  or  Latins  or 
Barbarians.'  ^  Tliis  larger  Church  he  distinguishes  from 
the  particular  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Other  works  of 
importance  were  De  reformatione  theologice,  De  uniiate 
ecclesiastica,  De  auferihilitate  papce  ah  ecclesia.  Trithe- 
mius  at  the  close  of  the  century  called  Gerson  '  theolo- 
gorum  sui  temporis  longe  princeps.'  ^ 

1  Gerson,  Opera,  i.  col.  119  seq.  2  Qerson,  Opera,  ii.  col.  161  teq. 

*  Cited  by  Schaff,  v.,  ii.  p.  218. 


PART  II 

THE  MODERN  AGE 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   REVIVAL   OF   LEARNING 

1.  There  was  a  'preliminary  revival  of  classical  scholar- 
ship in  the  late  fourteenth  and  early  fifteenth  centuries, 
which  tended  to  the  corruption  of  life  and  manners  in  the 
direction  of  heathenism,  and  to  the  undermining  of  Christian 
life  and  education. 

We  have  seen  that  the  university  of  Paris  grew  out  of 
the  cathedral  school,  and  that  the  other  early  uni- 
versities of  Northern  Europe  for  the  most  part  grew  out 
of  the  migration  of  students  and  masters  from  Paris  and 
Bologna,  or  the  daughters  of  these  universities.  The 
inevitable  result  of  the  growth  of  the  universities  was  the 
decline  of  the  older  cathedral  schools  ;  for  the  best 
teachers  and  the  most  energetic  scholars  resorted  to  the 
universities  by  preference. 

The  establishment  of  the  mendicant  orders,  the  loca- 
tion of  their  chief  seats  at  the  universities,  and  their 
active,  energetic  life,  replacing  the  older  contemplative 
life  of  the  Benedictines,  drew  the  most  vigorous  of  the 
young  men  to  the  new  orders.  The  Benedictines  de- 
clined in  influence  as  the  Franciscans,  Dominicans, 
Augustinians  and  other  friars  increased  in  reputation. 
And  so  the  monastic  schools  lost  their  importance,  as 

82 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  83 

the  mendicant  orders  established  their  schools  in  con- 
nection with  the  universities.  Accordingly  the  uni- 
versities became  the  great  seats  of  theological  as  well  as 
of  philosophical  and  grammatical  education  ;  and  the 
cathedral  and  monastic  schools  were  either  discontinued, 
or  reduced  to  small  importance  as  mere  grammar  schools, 
or  schools  of  piety,  from  which  the  best  students  went  to 
the  imiversities.  The  study  of  theology  was  practically 
given  over  to  the  mendicant  orders,  and  especially  to  the 
Dominicans  and  the  Franciscans,  whose  contests  agitated 
the  universities  and  the  Church  until  the  Reformation. 

The  study  of  theology  at  the  universities  was  chiefly 
a  study  of  the  Sentences  of  the  Lombard,  elaborated  by 
the  great  scholastics,  Thomas,  Bonaventura,  Duns  Scotus 
and  Occam,  with  their  numerous  disciples.  The  dogmas 
of  Christianity  were  elaborated  by  the  Aristotelian  logic, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  Aristotelian  categories,  into 
the  most  refined  and  hair-splitting  definitions  and  specu- 
lations. The  dogmas  of  Christianity  became  abstract 
dogmas,  of  little  practical  interest  or  importance,  mere 
intellectual  balloons,  or  castles  in  the  air.  The  in- 
evitable resuiC  was  a  barren  and  dead  orthodoxy.  The 
study  of  the  Bible  had  been  thrust  into  the  background. 
It  had  become  a  preliminary  study,  leading  up  to  the 
dogmatic  system.  The  allegorical  sense  gave  the  dog- 
matic theologian  whatever  he  wanted  for  his  purpose. 

The  great  teachers  of  Paris,  especially  Gerson  and 
Clemanges,  recognised  and  strove  to  overcome  these 
evils.     The  latter  says  : 

*  I  am  astonished  that  the  theologians  of  our  time  read  so  care- 
lessly the  pages  of  the  divine  Testaments,  enfeebling  their  spirits 
by  the  research  for  sterile  subtilties,  and,  to  use  the  term  of  the 
Apostle,  "  doting  about  questionings  and  disputes  of  words,"  ^ 
that  which  is  proper  for  sophists,  but  not  for  theologians.  The 
Apostle  indicates  here  the  procedure  of  those  men  who  leave  the 

1  I  Tim.  vi.  4, 


84      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

vigorous  and  fertile  tree  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  seek  their 
nourishment  in  doctrine  in  desert  and  sterile  places.  It  is  there 
that  they  anguish,  in  other  terms,  that  they  suffer  of  fasting,  die 
of  hunger,  because  they  find  no  fruit ;  or  if  they  encounter  it, 
that  fruit  is  like  the  apples  of  Sodom,  which  are  beautiful  and 
bright  in  appearance,  but  which  at  the  touch  resolve  themselves 
into  dust  and  smoke.  Yes,  at  first  sophisms  appear  beautiful, 
ingenious,  penetrating,  keen  ;  but,  if  you  tear  away  the  envelope 
of  words  to  get  at  the  fruit,  it  is  nothing  but  smoke,  because  all 
is  empty  within.'  ^ 

The  most  practical  study  of  theology  at  the  uni- 
versities was  that  of  canon  law ;  for  this  stud}^ 
involved  the  practice  of  law  in  the  law-courts,  and 
gave  those  skilled  in  it  the  highest  places  in  Church 
and  State. 

Paris  was  the  great  school  of  Theology,  Bologna  the 
great  school  of  Law,  so  recognised  by  the  pope  and  the 
bishops  for  centuries.  The  Scholastic  Theology  and  the 
Canon  Law  played  into  the  hands  of  the  pope  and  the 
curia. 

There  graduallj^  arose,  as  we  have  seen,  various  move- 
ments for  reform,  chiefly  on  the  practical  side  of  the  re- 
ligious life  or  of  religious  institution,  and  through  the 
revival  of  mystic  theology  ;  but  all  of  these  movements 
failed  for  the  time,  though  not  without  some  good  results. 
So  far  as  theological  education  is  concerned,  they  accom- 
plished nothing  of  importance.  The  reforming  move- 
ments did  not  go  deep  enough  ;  and  they  did  not  propose 
any  thorough-going  principle  of  reform,  or  find  for  it  a 
sufficiently  authoritative  basis. 

In  the  meanwhile  divine  Providence  was  preparing  the 
way  for  the  great  Reformation  in  an  extraordinary  way 
and  an  unexpected  manner,  such  as  is  usual  with  God, 
by  the  revival  of  classical  scholarship  and  a  return  to 
Greek  and  Roman  antiquity.     This  was  brought  about 

1  Clemanges,  De  studio  theologico ;  vide  D'Achery,  Spicilegium,  i.  476; 
Feret,  La  Faculte  de  theologie  de  Paris,  iv.  19. 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  85 

in  several  ways,  all  of  which  conspired  to  the  common 
end. 

It  is  generally  recognised  at  present  that  the  revival  of 
classical  scholarship  was  led  by  two  great  literary  men  : 
Petrarch  (1304-1374)  and  Boccaccio  (1313-1375).  These 
were  especially  interested  in  the  literature  of  Rome  and 
Greece.  Petrarch  has  been  called  the  '  first  modern  man.'  ^ 
'  In  a  new  age  he  was  the  first  to  recognise  the  supreme 
importance  of  the  old  classical  literature  ' ;  he  '  prepared 
the  soil  of  Italy  for  the  reception  of  Greek  culture,'  but 
he  regarded  '  the  study  of  the  classics  as  the  handmaid 
of  Christianity.'  ^  Boccaccio  was  '  the  first  of  modem  men 
to  study  [classical]  Greek  in  Italy,  and  indeed  in 
Europe.'  ^  He  learned  his  Greek  from  the  pupils  of  the 
Calabrian  monk  Barlaam.  Florence  became  the  centre 
of  a  classical  scholarship,  which  did  not  at  first  connect 
itself  with  the  universities,  but  organised  itself  in  associa- 
tions or  academies  entirely  apart  from  universities  or 
organised  schools.  The  new  learning  was  at  first 
acquired  by  private  study,  from  private  teachers,  as  in 
ancient  times.  The  students  of  classical  antiquity  were 
known  as  Humanists.  This  classical  revival  at  the  be- 
ginning had  nothing  to  do  with  theology  ;  its  tendency 
was  rather  away  from  theology.  Indeed  for  a  long  time 
it  was  demoralising  to  Christian  theology,  and  really  a 
revival  of  heathenism. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  there  arose  at  Florence 
a  reformer  who  '  represents  a  religious  reaction  against  the  pagan 
tendencies  of  some  of  the  Humanists,'  and  who  wrote  a  tract 
'  describing  aU  learning  as  dangerous  unless  limited  to  a  chosen 
few.'  *  Savonarola  (1452-1498)  was  a  mystic  of  a  different  type 
from  those  of  Paris.  He  was  a  preacher  of  repentance,  and 
exposed  from  the  pulpit  the  abuses  existing  among  clergy  and 
laity.  He  says  of  himself :  '  I  preach  the  regeneration  of  the 
Church,  taking  the  Scriptures  as  my  sole  guide.'     He  complains  : 

1  Renan,  Averroes,  p.  328  (ed.  1882). 

2  Sandys,  ii.  pp.  4  seq.  3  Ibid.,  p.  15.  •*  Ibid.,  p.  88. 


86      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

*  In  the  mansions  of  the  great  prelates  there  is  no  concern  save 
for  poetry  and  the  oratorical  art.'  '  The  theologians  of  our  time 
...  do  not  know  a  shred  of  the  Bible  ;  yea,  they  do  not  even 
know  the  names  of  its  books.'  ^  Savonarola  claimed  the  gift 
of  prophecy,  and  predicted  ruin  for  the  impenitent.  Even  his 
enemies  saw  in  him  a  resemblance  to  John  the  Baptist.  In  his 
denunciations  he  spared  neither  Rome  nor  the  papacy.  When 
his  own  city,  which  had  protected  him,  was  threatened  with  the 
interdict,  he  prepared  an  appeal  from  the  pope  to  an  oecumenical 
council.  His  enemies,  by  challenging  him  to  an  ordeal  of  fire, 
succeeded  in  destroying  his  influence  with  the  people  ;  and  they 
tortured  him  into  a  retraction.  But  like  Jerome  of  Prague,  he 
overcame  his  physical  weakness  and  faced  death  with  unflinching 
courage.  At  his  deposition,  when  the  officiating  prelate  declared  : 
'  Separo  te  ab  ecclesia  militante  et  triumphante,'  Savonarola 
cried  :  '  Militante,  non  triumphante  :  hoc  enim  tuum  non  est.' 
The  Meditations,  which  he  wrote  in  the  intervals  of  torture,  were 
translated  and  circulated  in  Germany,  Spain,  France,  and 
England,  as  well  as  Italy.  Luther  published  them  with  warm 
commendation. 

2.  The  Council  of  Florence  (1439),  in  the  interest  of  the 
reunion  of  the  Eastern  Churches  with  the  Western,  brought  a 
large  number  of  Orientals  to  Italy,  and  resulted  in  a  revived 
interest  in  the  study  of  Theology,  especially  of  Comparative 
or  Irenic  Theology. 

The  Council  held  at  Ferrara  in  1438,  and  removed  to 
Florence  in  1439,  brought  a  large  number  of  Greeks  and 
Orientals  to  Italy  in  the  interest  of  the  reunion  of  the 
East  and  the  West.  Among  them  came  a  considerable 
number  of  learned  men,  who  established  themselves  per- 
manently in  Italy.  These  scholars  brought  with  them 
the  Greek  language  and  Greek  literature.  Students  of 
theology  learned  to  know  the  Greek  Bible  and  the 
Greek  Fathers ;  students  of  philosophy  read  Plato  and 
Aristotle  in  the  original.  The  Latin  Church  became 
once  more  acquainted  with  the  Greek  and  Oriental 
Churches.^ 

1  Vide  Schaff,  vol.  v.  part  ii.  pp.  688  seq. 

*  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  142,  154. 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  87 

Of  these  Eastern  scholars  the  chief  were : 

(1)  Bessarion  (c.  1395-1472),  archbishop  of  Nicsea,  who  for 
his  services  in  behalf  of  reunion  was  made  cardinal,  and  so  spent 
his  last  years  in  Italy.  He  surrounded  himself  \\dth  numbers  of 
Greek  scholars,  and  became  a  great  patron  of  classical  learning. 

(2)  Another  of  these  learned  Greeks  was  Theodore  of  Gaza 
(1400-1475),  the  first  professor  of  Greek  at  Ferrara,  who  also 
taught  philosophy  in  Rome.  He  wrote  a  Greek  grammar, 
which  was  used  as  a  text-book  in  Paris,  Cambridge  and  Germany. 
Among  his  pupils  was  the  great  German  Humanist,  Rudolphus 
Agricola. 

(3)  Argyropulos  of  Constantinople  (1416-1486)  taught  first  at 
Padua,  then  at  Florence,  and  finally  in  Rome,  where  he  became 
the  instructor  of  the  famous  German,  Reuchlin,  concerning  whom 
he  exclaimed  :  '  Lo  !  Greece  through  our  exile  has  flown  across 
the  Alps.'  ^     He  became  noted  for  his  translations  of  Aristotle. 

(4)  Gemistos  Plethon  of  Constantinople  (c.  1356-1450)  was  one 
of  the  champions  of  the  Greek  Church  at  the  Council  of  Florence. 
He  taught  the  Platonic  philosophy  in  Florence,  and  renewed  the 
struggle  between  Plato  and  Aristotle. 

The  Greeks  in  Italy  were  divided  between  these  two 
philosophers,  and  a  great  controversy  arose  as  to  their 
relative  merits.  The  result  was  an  increasing  attention 
to  Plato  among  the  Humanists,  and  an  increasing  desire 
to  get  rid  of  the  dominant  Aristotelian  Scholasticism. 

The  study  of  the  classics  carried  with  it  the  study  of 
Christian  antiquity  and  the  rise  of  historic  investigation. 

The  most  important  scholar  in  this  regard  was 
Laurentius  Valla  (1407-1457). 

Valla  became  the  father  of  historical  criticism.  He  was 
trained  in  Humanistic  studies,  and,  while  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
the  university  of  Pavia,  wrote  Qucestiones  dialecticce  and  De 
eleganfiis  latini  sermonis,  works  characterised  by  Wagenmann  as 
'  Humanism's  open  declaration  of  war  '  against  the  logic  and  the 
Latin  of  the  Schools.^  The  treatise  on  Latin  passed  through 
fifty-nine  editions  in  the  years  1471-1536.  'In  his  treatise  on 
Dialectic  he  denounces  the    mediaeval  Aristotehans,  Avicenna 

1  Vide  Sandys,  ii.  p.  64. 

2  Wagenmann,  'Laurentius  Valla,'  in  HeTZOg's  Real-Encyklo2^ddie/ur 
protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche. 


88      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

and  Averroes,  and  attacks  the  philosophers  of  his  time  for  their 
behef  in  the  infallibihty  of  Aristotle.'  ^  The  philosophers, 
theologians  and  jurists  all  rose  uj)  in  arms,  and  Valla  left  Pavia. 
Some  years  later  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Humanist,  Alfonzo, 
king  of  Aragon  and  Sicily  (c.  1435).  During  this  period  of  his 
life  he  investigated  the  sources  of  Canon  Law,  and  proved  that 
the  so-called  Donation  of  Constanline  was  a  pseudonymous  work 
of  much  later  date.  He  also  produced  a  Collatio  Novi  Testa- 
menti,  first  pubhshed  by  Erasmus  (1505),  who  praises  the  're- 
markable sagacity  '  with  which  Valla  has  '  examined  the  whole 
New  Testament/  and  considers  him  '  unrivalled  both  in  the 
sharpness  of  his  intelligence  and  the  tenacity  of  his  memory.'  ^ 
About  the  year  1445  Valla  opened  a  school  of  Greek  and  Latin 
hterature  in  Naples,  and  attracted  a  multitude  of  students.  Two 
or  three  years  later  Pope  Nicholas  v.  made  him  scriptor  apos- 
tolicus.  In  1450  he  became  also  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Rome, 
and  under  Cahxtus  in.  (1455)  papal  secretary.  In  addition  to 
numerous  translations  from  the  Greek,  his  works  include  the 
famous  Elegantice  and  Declamatio,  and  several  influential 
treatises  on  Ethics.  Luther  declares  that  *  the  hke  of  (Valla) 
neither  Italy  nor  the  whole  Church  produced  in  many  centuries.'  ^ 
'  Laurencius  Valla  ist  der  best  wahl,  den  ich  mein  lebtag  gesehn 
oder  erfaren  hab.  De  libcro  arbitrio  bene  disputat.'  *  Erasmus 
wrote  :  '  Where  is  the  man  whose  heart  is  so  narrowed  by  jealousy 
as  not  to  have  the  highest  praise  for  Valla,  a  man  who  with  so 
much  energy,  zeal  and  labour  refuted  the  stupidities  of  the  Bar- 
barians, saved  half-buried  letters  from  extinction,  restored  Italy 
to  her  ancient  splendour  of  eloquence,  and  forced  even  the 
learned  to  express  themselves  henceforth  with  more  circum- 
spection ?  '  To  strike  at  Valla  is  to  wound  '  all  men  of  letters.' 
He  is  '  eloquent  above  all  others,'  and  '  has  been  rightly  called 
"  The  Marrow  of  Persuasion."  '  ■ 

3.  The  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in  1453 
drove  large  numbers  of  learned  Greeks  into  exile  in  Italy,  and 
other  parts  of  the  West,  where  they  greatly  increased  the 
knowledge  of  Greek  literature,  both  classical  and  theo- 
logical. 

Students  of  classical  antiquity  resorted  to  Italy  from 

1  Sandys,  11.  p.  67.  2  Erasmus,  Epp.  21,  182. 

«  Benrath,  'Valla,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 

4  Preger,  Tischreden  Luther s,  237.  ^  Erasmus,  Epp.  26,  27. 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  89 

all  over  Europe  to  acquire  the  new  learning,  and  they 
carried  it  back  with  them  to  their  native  lands.  Thus 
Humanism  spread  rapidly  as  a  new  intellectual  force 
throughout  the  West. 

Erasmus  expressed  the  conviction  of  many  when  he 
said  : 

*  Latin  erudition,  however  ample,  is  crippled  and  imperfect 
without  Greek.  We  have  in  Latin  at  best  some  small  streams 
and  turbid  pools,  while  they  have  the  clearest  springs  and  rivers 
flowing  with  gold.  I  see  it  is  the  merest  madness  to  touch  with 
the  little  finger  that  principal  part  of  theology  which  treats  of 
the  divine  mysteries,  without  being  furnished  with  the  apparatus 
of  Greek.'  '  They  have  neither  sense  nor  shame  who  presume 
to  write  upon  the  Sacred  Books,  or  indeed  upon  any  of  the  books 
of  the  ancients,  without  being  tolerably  furnished  in  both  Utera- 
tures.'  ^ 

Among  the  exiles  from  Constantinople  came  also 
learned  men  from  among  the  Jews  and  the  Oriental 
Churches,  who  introduced  the  study  of  Oriental  languages, 
especially  Hebrew.  The  Hebrew  Bible,  the  Talmud  and 
the  Jewish  commentators  began  to  be  studied  by 
Christian  scholars. 

4.  The  spread  of  the  new  learning  was  greatly  aided  by 
the  invention  of  printing  at  Mainz  in  1440. 

Printing  was  introduced  into  Italy  by  two  of  the  work- 
men of  Fust  the  inventor,  who  set  up  a  press  at  Subiaco 
in  1465,  and  then  at  Rome  in  1467.  The  great  printing 
press  of  Italy,  however,  was  the  Aldine  at  Venice,  estab- 
lished in  1494,  and  sustained  by  the  '  New  Academy  '  of 
Hellenists  which  was  founded  in  1500  by  Aldus  Manutius. 
This  society  proposed  to  print  each  month  an  edition  of 
at  least  1000  copies  of  some  good  author. 

'  By  the  year  1500  about  5000  books  had  been  produced  in 
Italy,  of  which  about  300  belong  to  Florence  and  Bologna,  more 
than  600  to  Milan,  more  than  900  to  Rome,  and  2835  to  Venice.'  ^ 

1  Erasmus,  E;pp.  143,  182.  2  Sandys,  ii.  p.  97. 


90      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Erasmus  testifies  to  the  liberality  of  the  Italians,  and 
especially  of  Aldus,  in  matters  of  literature  ;    saying  : 

'  When  I,  a  Hollander,  was  publishing  in  Italy  my  work  on 
Proverbs,  all  the  learned  who  were  within  reach,  came  forward  to 
supply  me  with  the  authors,  not  yet  printed,  that  they  thought 
Ukely  to  be  of  use  to  me.  Aldus  had  notliing  in  his  treasures 
which  he  did  not  place  at  my  service.  ...  I  was  assisted  by 
some  whom  I  knew  neither  personally  nor  by  name.'  ^ 

5.  Humanism  found  an  early  entrance  into  the  Nether- 
lands by  attaching  itself  to  the  mystic  tendency  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. 

Gerhard  Groote  (1340-1384)  and  Florentlua  Radewyns 
(1350-1400)  founded  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Common 
Life,  which  established  schools  for  moral  and  religious 
education  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Northern  Germany. 
The  instruction  given  was  based  upon  the  study  of  the 
Latin  language.  This  led  to  a  revival  of  the  study  of  the 
Latin  classics  in  these  schools. 

Nicolaus  Cusanus  and  John  Wessel  were  trained  in 
them,  and  both  added  Greek  and  Hebrew  to  their  Latin, 
and  gathered  ancient  manuscripts. 

Nicolaus  ofCusa  (1401-1464)  was  trained  in  Law,  Mathematics 
and  Astronomy,  as  well  as  Theology  and  Philosophy.  He  be- 
longed to  the  Mystics  who  sought  the  reformation  of  the  Church, 
and  wrote  De  concordantia  catholica.  Like  Gerson  he  subordinated 
the  pope  to  the  oecumenical  council.  In  his  work,  De  docta 
ignorantia,  he  criticised  the  scholastic  method. 

John  Wessel  (1420-1489)  was  noted  for  breadth  of  interest  and 
a  spirit  of  inquiry,  that  won  for  him  the  name  magister  contra- 
dictionum.  Rudolphus  Agricola  and  John  Reuchlin  studied 
with  him  before  going  to  Italy  to  enlarge  their  knowledge  of 
Greek. 

6.  Erasmus  summed  up  in  himself  all  that  was  best  in 
Humanism,  and  by  his  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  and 
of  the  Fathers  gave  a  basis  of  authority,  Biblical  and 
Patristic,  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church. 

1  Erasmus,  Adagia  ;  vide  Nichols,  Exnstle»  of  Erasmus,  i,  pp.  437  seq. 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  91 

The  most  distinguished  of  the  pupils  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life  was  Erasmus  of  Botterdum  (1466- 
1536).  He  received  his  primary  education  among  the 
Brethren  at  Deventer  and  Bois-le-Duc,  and  in  1487 
entered  the  Augustinian  monastery  near  Gouda,  where  he 
remained  a  close  student  for  ten  years.  The  bishop  of 
Cambrai  then  sent  him  to  Paris,  where  he  studied  and 
taught  in  the  university.  He  devoted  special  attention 
to  Greek,  and  wrote  : 

'  My  Greek  studies  are  almost  too  much  for  my  courage  ;  while 
I  have  not  the  means  of  purchasing  books,  or  the  help  of  a 
teacher.'  Again  he  says:  'I  have  been  applying  my  whole 
mind  to  the  study  of  Greek  ;  and  as  soon  as  I  receive  any  money, 
I  shall  first  buy  Greek  authors,  and  afterwards  some  clothes.' 
He  complains  of  '  a  great  penury  of  books  ;  leisure  none  ;  health 
infirm  ;  '  yet  declares  :  '  My  whole  soul  is  bent  on  acquiring  the 
most  perfect  learning,  and  hence  I  have  a  supreme  disregard  for 
learning  of  a  trivial  kind.' 

'  I  am  determined  that  it  is  better  to  learn  late  than  to  be 
without  the  knowledge  which  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
possess.'  '  I  began  to  look  at  Hebrew,  but  frightened  by  the 
strangeness  of  the  idiom,  and  in  consideration  of  my  age  and  of 
the  insufficiency  of  the  human  mind  to  master  a  multitude  of 
subjects,  I  gave  it  up.' 

In  his  enthusiasm  he  declares  : 

*  If  there  is  any  fresh  Greek  to  be  bought,  I  had  rather  pawn 
my  coat  than  not  get  it ;  especially  if  it  is  something  Christian, 
as  the  Psalms  in  Greek  or  the  Gospels.'  ^ 

Erasmus  travelled  about  from  university  to  imiversity 
in  France,  England,  Italy,  the  Netherlands  and  Switzer- 
land, in  the  interests  of  higher  scholarship  ;  and  became 
the  greatest  scholar  of  his  age.  He  paid  several  visits  to 
England,  and  the  English  Humanists,  Colet  and  Sir 
Thomas  More,  became  his  devoted  friends.  Both  the 
great  universities  '  sought  to  have  '  him,  and  he  '  spent 
several    months    at    Cambridge    teaching    Greek    and 

1  Erasmus,  Epp.  112,  113,  139,  143,  156,  180. 
VOL.  II.  Q 


92      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Divinity.'  ^  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  passed  chiefly 
in  Basel,  and  most  of  his  works  appeared  from  the 
famous  press  of  Froben.  Erasmus  sought  and  obtained 
release  from  his  monastic  vows,  and  came  into  conflict 
with  the  monks  in  the  interests  of  learning.  He  ardently 
espoused  the  cause  of  classic  scholarship  and  of  the  study 
of  the  Fathers,  as  over  against  mediaeval  scholarship  and 
the  ignorance  of  the  religious  orders  of  his  time.  His 
editions  of  the  Greek  Testament,  and  of  many  of  the 
Fathers,  laid  a  basis  for  sound  scholarship.  He  says 
himself  : 

'  Many  are  induced  to  study  the  Sacred  Writings,  who  would 
otherwise  never  have  read  them,  as  they  themselves  admit ;  and 
a  great  many  have  begun  to  study  Greek  ;  indeed,  that  is  going 
on  everywhere.'  ^ 

He  regarded  himself  as  called  to  do  *  the  humblest  part 
of  the  work '  to  be  done  for  theology,  and  says  : 

'  I  wanted  to  construct  a  road  for  other  persons  of  higher  aims, 
so  that  they  might  be  less  impeded  by  pools  and  stumbling  blocks 
in  carrjdng  home  those  fair  and  glorious  treasures.'  ^ 

The  works  of  Erasmus  include  editions  or  translations 
of  many  of  the  greatest  authors  of  the  Christian  and 
classical  world.  Of  his  original  works  the  best  known 
are  his  famous  satire  Morice  encomium,  the  Colloquies^ 
letters,  treatises  on  education,  and  on  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages,  the  Enchiridion  militis  cliristiani  and 
its  companion  Institutio  principis  cliristiani,  and 
Ecclesiastes,  which  emphasises  the  prophetic  function  of 
the  Christian  ministry. 

There  are  countless  testimonies  from  his  cotemporaries  to  the 
unique  place  held  by  Erasmus.  Reuchlin  writes  from  Germany  : 
'  You  alone  bring  us  back  some  image  of  the  ancient  eloquence  ; 
the  rest  of  us  are  a  mob.'  More  writes  from  England  concerning 
his  Utopia  :  '  I  want  to  know  whether  Tunstall  approves,  and 
Busleiden,  and  your  Chancellor  .  .  .  but  your  vote  alone  will 

1  Erasmus,  Ep.  290.  2  jud,,  400.  »  Ibid.,  522. 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  93 

be  abundantly  sufficient  for  my  judgment.  We  two  are  to  my 
mind  a  multitude,  as  I  think  I  could  live  happily  with  you  in  any 
sohtude.'  Henry  of  Glarus  cries  :  '  It  was  a  great  thing  to  have 
learned  morality  from  Socrates  .  .  .  but  I  have  received  much 
more  from  you.  Besides  innumerable  other  benefits,  the  chief 
is  this  :  that  you  have  taught  me  to  know  Christ,  and  not  to 
know  Him  only,  but  to  imitate,  to  reverence  and  to  love  Him.'  ^ 
Watson  writes :  '  You  are  celebrated  everywhere  in  Italy, 
especially  among  the  learned  of  the  highest  note.  .  .  .  Your 
fame  is  spread  throughout  all  the  Christian  world.  .  .  .  Wherever 
you  are,  you  so  live  as  to  seem  present  ever^'where  in  Christendom, 
and  will  continue  to  live  by  the  immortality  of  your  fame  and  the 
noble  monuments  you  will  leave  behind  you.  By  your  correc- 
tion of  the  New  Testament  accompanied  by  your  notes,  you  have 
thrown  a  marvellous  light  on  Christ,  and  deserved  well  of  all  His 
zealous  followers.'  ^  But  Erasmus  says  :  '  For  myself  I  think 
nothing  settled,  unless  I  have  the  approval  of  Christ,  on  whose 
single  vote  all  our  felicity  depends.'  ^  '  Hue  discuntur  disciplin?e, 
hue  philosophia,  hue  eloquentia,  ut  Christum  intelligamus,  ut 
Christi  gloriam  celebremus.  Hie  est  totius  eruditionis  et  elo- 
quentiae  scopus.'  * 

Erasmus  worked  for  a  reform  of  the  Church,  especially 
on  the  side  of  learning  and  morals  ;  and  he,  like  most  of 
the  Humanists,  finally  opposed  Luther  and  the  other 
Reformers,  in  the  interests  of  learning  and  the  unity  of 
the  Church.  His  dread  of  a  conflict  in  the  Church  may 
be  gathered  from  the  fervour  of  his  appeal  against 
national  strife  for  those  '  who  glory  in  the  name  of 
Christ,  of  a  Master  who  taught  and  exhibited  nothing  but 
gentleness,  who  are  members  of  one  body,  and  are  one 
flesh,  quickened  by  the  same  Spirit,  fed  by  the  same 
sacraments,  attached  to  the  same  Head,  called  to  the 
same  immortality,  hoping  for  that  highest  communion, 
that  as  Christ  and  the  Father  are  one,  so  we  may  be  one 
with  Him.'  ^ 

1  Vide  Nichols,  Epistles  of  Eraamus,  11.  pp.  276,  886,  426  seq. 
'  Vide  Nichols,  ihid.,  ii.  pp.  334  seq.  3  Erasmus,  Ep.  184, 

<  Erasmus,  Ciccronicums  ;  vidf.  Woodward,  Desidcrius  Erasmus  con- 
etrning  the  Aim  and  Method  of  Education,  p.  59. 
*  Erasmus,  Ep.  281. 


94      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

7.  The  Humanists  of  France  were  more  of  the  Italian 
type.  Their  chief  theologian  Clemanges  combined  mystic 
with  humanistic  studies. 

The  earliest  French  Humanist  was  Jean  de  Montreuil 
(1354-1418),  who  had,  however,  no  position  as  a  teacher. 

Nicolas  de  Clemanges  (c.  1367-1437),  his  friend,  was  the 
first  great  Humanist  of  France.  He  was  educated  in 
the  university  of  Paris,  at  the  college  of  Navarre,  by 
Pierre  D'Ailly  and  Gerson  ;  and  taught  rhetoric  there. 
In  1393  he  became  rector  of  the  university,  and,  four  years 
later,  papal  secretary  under  Benedict  xin.  But  in  1408 
he  retired  to  a  Cistercian  cloister,  and  gave  himself  to 
Biblical  study,  which  he  felt  had  been  neglected.  In  his 
work  De  studio  theologico  he  exalts  the  parish  priest 
above  the  student,  yet  recommends  the  study  of  theology 
and  especially  of  the  Scriptures.  He  felt  the  influence  of 
the  Italian  Humanists.  In  1425  he  returned  to  Paris 
to  teach  rhetoric  and  theology  in  the  college  of  Navarre. 
Clemanges  was  influential  in  the  calling  of  the  Council  of 
Constance,  but  disappointed  and  displeased  with  its  final 
action  as  to  the  papacy.  Like  his  masters,  D'Ailly  and 
Gerson,  he  was  opposed  to  the  sophistry  of  the  time. 
These  three  great  mystics  were  sound  in  their  mysticism, 
and  emphasised  direct  communion  with  God  and  the 
Christian  life.  Like  Erasmus  they  worked  for  reform  as 
middle  men,  and  accomplished  more  than  is  recognised. 
All  three  have  been  neglected  by  both  Protestants  and 
Catholics — ^by  the  latter  because,  in  the  three  reforming 
councils  which  they  dominated,  they  exalted  the 
authority  of  the  oecumenical  council  above  that  of  the 
pope.  Among  the  writings  of  Clemanges  may  be  men- 
tioned the  tracts,  De  ruina  ecclesice,  De  corrupto  ecclesice 
statu,  De  fructu  rerum  adversarum,  and  his  letters  to 
D'Ailly,  Gerson  and  others. 

The  first  scholar  officially  appointed  to  teach  classical  Greek 
in  Paris  was  Gregorio  Tifernas  (f  1466).    He  was  followed  in  1476 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  96 

by  HermonymiLS,  the  *  somewhat  incompetent '  instructor  of 
Reuchhn,  Erasmus  and  Budaeus.  Aleander  was  introduced 
there  by  Erasmus  (1508),  and  became  rector  of  the  university  in 
1512,  hbrarian  of  the  Vatican  in  1517,  and  finally  a  cardinal. 

The  greatest  French  Humanist  was  Budoeus  (1467-1540),  who 
won  from  Italy  the  supremacy  in  classical  scholarship.  Calvin 
calls  him  :  '  primum  rei  literariae  decus  et  columen.'  His  influ- 
ence secured  the  establishment  of  the  Corporation  of  the  Royal 
Readers  (1530),  which  developed  into  the  College  de  France. 
Sandys  regards  this  foundation  as  '  perhaps  his  most  important, 
certainly  his  most  permanent,  service  to  the  cause  of  scholarship.'^ 

Faher  Stapulensis,  Jacques  Lefevre  d'fitaples  (tl536),  Human- 
ist, philosopher,  and  theologian,  was  influential  as  a  teacher  in 
Paris.  He  is  praised  by  8ir  Thomas  More  '  as  the  restorer  of  true 
Dialectic  aa('  t^  ue  Philusophj^  especially  that  founded  upon 
Aristotle,'  ani  by  Erasmus  for  his  work  on  the  New  Testament.* 
He  pubHshed  Psalterium  quintwplex  (1509),  French  versions  of  the 
New  Testament  (1523),  and  the  Psalter  (1525),  and  finally  one 
of  the  entire  Bible  (1530),  which  served  as  a  basis  for  the  better 
known  version  of  Olevitan  (1535).  Stapulensis  also  produced 
commentaries  on  the  Scriptures  and  on  Aristotle,  and  Latin 
translations  of  the  Fathers  and  the  Mystics.  In  the  preface  to 
his  commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  he  maintained  the  author- 
ity of  the  Scriptures  and  urged  a  reform  of  the  Church. 

8.  Humanism  w/xde  its  way  into  Germany  and  German 
universities.  The  earliest  representatives  were  jEneas 
Sylvius  and  Regiomontanus.  The  chief  German  Humanist, 
however,  was  Reuchlin,  who  laid  the  foundation  for  the 
study  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew. 

1.  JEneas  Sylvius  de  Piccolomini  (1405-1464)  '  re- 
presented Italian  Humanism  in  Vienna  (1442-1455),'  and 
won  '  the  gratitude  of  Germany  for  the  teaching  and 
the  example  which  had  led  that  land  to  admire  the 
studies  of  Humanism.' '  As  Pope  Pius  n.  (1458)  he 
collected  many  valuable  manuscripts  and  encouraged 
all  the  arts. 

2.  Regiomontanus  (1436-1476),  archbishop  of  Ratisbon, 

1  Sandys,  ii,  pp.  172  seq. 

*  Vide  Nichols,  Epistles  of  Erasmus,  11.  pp.  224  327. 

»  Vide  Sandys,  IL  p.  251, 


96      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

was  a  friend  of  Bessarion,  and  taught  and  translated  both 
Greek  and  Latin  works. 

We  may  quote  the  summary  statement  of  Sandys  as 
to  the  different  classes  of  Humanists  in  Germany  : 

'  The  Humanists  of  Germany  may  be  divided  into  three  suc- 
cessive schools  distinguished  from  one  another  in  their  relation 
to  the  Church.  (1)  The  Earlier  or  Scholastic  Humanists,  who 
were  loyal  supporters  of  the  Church,  while  they  were  eager  for  a 
revival  of  classical  learning,  and  a  new  system  of  education. 
They  are  represented  by  the  three  great  teachers  of  North  Ger- 
many, Rudolfus  Agricola,  Rudolf  von  Langen,  and  Alexander 
Hegius  ;  also  by  Wimpfehng,  the  restorer  of  education  in  South 
Germany ;  by  Trithemius,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Rhenish 
Society  of  Literature  ;  and  by  Eck,  the  famous  opponent  of 
Luther.  They  worked  for  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  aU  branches 
of  knowledge,  while  they  hoped  that  the  new  learning  would 
remain  subservient  to  the  old  theology.  (2)  The  Intermediate 
or  Rational  Humanists,  who  took  a  rational  view  of  Christianity 
and  its  creed,  while  they  protested  against  the  old  scholasticism, 
and  against  the  external  abuses  of  the  Church.  "  They  either  did 
not  support  Luther,  or  soon  deserted  him,  being  conscious  that 
his  movement  would  lead  to  the  destruction  of  all  true  culture." 
Their  leaders  were  Reuchlin  and  Erasmus,  and  Conrad  Muth, 
the  Canon  of  Gotha.  "  Their  party  and  its  true  work  of  culture 
were  shipwrecked  by  the  tempest  of  the  Reformation."  (3)  The 
Later  or  Protefitant  Humanists,  who  were  ready  to  "  protest  " 
against  everything — young  men  of  great  talent,  but  of  less  learn- 
ing, whose  love  of  liberty  sometimes  lapsed  into  Ucence.  Their 
leading  spirit  was  Ulrich  von  Hutten.  In  course  of  time,  some 
of  them  became  Rational  Humanists ;  others,  supporters  of 
Luther.  "  While  Erasmus,  Reuchlin  and  Muth  viewed  Luther's 
propaganda  with  distrust,"  these  younger  Humanists  "  flocked 
to  the  new  standard  of  protest  and  revolt,  and  so  doing  brought 
culture  into  disgrace  and  shipwrecked  the  Revival  of  Learning 
in  Germany."  "  The  revolt  of  Luther  caused  the  Church  to 
reject  Humanism,  and  was  the  deathblow  of  the  Erasmian 
Reformation."  '  ^ 

This  last  statement,  however,  is  rather  extreme  and 
unfair  to  the  Reformers,  who  counted  on  their  side  one 

1  Sandys,  ii.  pp.  258  seq.,  citing  Pearson,  The  Ethic  of  Free  Thought^ 
pp.  166  seq. 


en.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  97 

of  the  greatest  of  the  Humanists,  Melanchthon,  the 
'  Preceptor  of  Germany,'  Camerarius,  John  Sturm,  and 
many  others. 

3.  Eudolphus  Agricola  (1444-1485)  was  trained  at 
Deventer,  Erfurt,  Louvain,  Cologne,  Pa  via,  and  Ferrara  ; 
and  taught  at  Heidelberg.  He  learned  Greek  of  Theo- 
dorus  Gaza,  and  in  his  last  years  studied  Hebrew.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  to  Germany  what  Petrarch  was  to 
Italy,  and  was  called  by  his  cotemporaries  '  a  second 
Virgil.'  1 

4.  Hegius  (1433-1498)  '  made  the  school  of  Deventer 
the  great  educational  centre  of  North  Germany.'  ^ 
In  his  time  '  the  number  of  scholars  rivalled  those  of  a 
university,  amounting,  it  is  said,  at  one  time  to  2200.'  ^ 
Erasmus  writes  of  Agricola  as  '  the  preceptor  of  my 
schoolmaster,  Alexander  Hegius,  himself  no  degenerate 
disciple  of  such  a  master.'  * 

5.  Jacob  Wimpheling  (1450-1528)  studied  at  Schlett- 
stadt,  Freiburg,  Erfurt,  and  finally  at  Heidelberg,  where 
he  afterwards  (1498)  became  a  professor  and  lectured  on 
Jerome.  At  Strasburg  and  other  cities  he  founded 
societies  of  literature.  Through  these  as  well  as  through 
his  text-books  and  treatises  on  education  he  became 
widely  influential  in  promoting  liberal  learning  and 
improved  methods  of  instruction.  His  numerous  writings 
include  works  on  theology,  and  he  laboured  for  the 
Church  as  well  as  for  the  school.  Erasmus  calls  him 
'  the  chief  man  of  letters  in  his  country,  and  the  high 
priest  of  every  Humanity.'  ^ 

6.  Johannes  Trithemius  (1462-1516),  abbot  of  Spon- 
heim,  transformed  his  monastery  into  a  centre  of  learning 
and  gathered  a  great  library  there.  He  was  a  student  of 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  and  of  the  natural  sciences ;   but 

1  Vide.  Pearson,  The  Ethic  of  Free  Thought,  p.  173. 

*  Sandys,  ii.  p.  255.  ^  Nichols,  Epist.  Erasm.,  i.  p.  17. 

*  Erasmus,  Ep.  22.  »  Jbid, ,  298. 


98      HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [ft.  n. 

exalted  theology  above  them  all,  and  urged  theologians 
to  study  the  Scriptures. 

7.  Reuchlin  (1455-1522)  was  trained  in  law,  philo- 
sophy, and  '  the  three  languages,'  and  studied  at 
Schlettstadt,  Freiburg,  Paris,  Basel,  Orleans,  Poitiers, 
Florence,  and  Rome.  Greek  he  learned  of  native 
Greeks  ;  Hebrew  of  John  Wessel  and  Jewish  Rabbis. 
He  published  a  Greek  grammar,  and  a  Latin  lexicon  that 
passed  through  many  editions.  He  laid  the  foundation 
for  Hebrew  scholarship  among  Christians  by  publishing 
the  first  Hebrew  grammar  and  lexicon,  combined  in  the 
work  De  rudimentis  hebraicis  (1506).^  Twelve  years 
later  he  brought  out  a  treatise  De  accentihus  et  ortho- 
graphia  linguce  hebraicce.  He  also  studied  Rabbinical 
literature,  and  wrote  on  the  cabala.  There  was  a  stiff 
battle  in  Germany  between  the  Humanists  and  the 
Obscurantists  about  Reuchlin  and  the  study  of  the 
Hebrew  language  and  the  Jewish  Talmud.  Erasmus 
wrote  to  Raphael,  the  cardinal  of  St.  George  : 

'  I  do  most  earnestly  beseech  and  adjure  you  for  the  sake  of 
good  letters  .  .  .  that  that  distinguished  man,  Doctor  John 
Reuchlin,  may  enjoy  your  protection  and  goodwill.  .  .  .  He  is 
one  to  whom  all  Germany  is  indebted,  having  been  the  iSrst  to 
arouse  in  that  country  a  love  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  literature.'  ' 

To  Reuchlin  Erasmus  wrote  : 

'  When  I  read  your  apology,  composed  with  so  much  spirit  and 
eloquence,  and  such  an  exuberance  of  learning,  I  seemed  to 
myself  to  be  Hstening  not  to  a  culprit  making  his  defence,  but  to 
a  conqueror  celebrating  his  triumph.'  ^ 

Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester,  says  of  Reuchlin : 

'  He  appears  to  me  to  hold  the  palm  over  aU  Uving  authors, 
whose  works  I  have  read,  in  the  treatment  of  abstruse  questions 
of  Theology  and  of  Philosophy.'  * 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  140  seq. 
a  Erasmus,  Bp.  319.  '»  Ibid.,  294. 

*  Vide  Nichols,  .Epistles  of  Erasmus,  ii.  p.  292. 


en.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  99 

8.  Mutianus,  Conrad  Muth  of  Erfurt  (c.  1471-1526),  a 
schoolmate  of  Erasmus  at  De venter,  was  the  chief  of 
the  group  of  Humanists  which  produced  the  EpistolcB 
obscurorum  virorum,  a  series  of  satires  which  threw  their 
opponents  into  confusion  and  contempt.  The  first 
volume  was  mainly  composed  by  Johann  Jager  {Crotus 
Bubeanus),  the  second  by  TJlrich  von  Hutten  (1488-1523), 
'  the  stormy  petrel '  of  the  German  Reformation.^ 
Cologne  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  opponents  of  Humanism, 
Erfurt  of  its  friends. 

9.  Johann  von  Stawpitz  (f  1524),  the  first  dean  of  the 
theological  faculty  at  Wittenberg,  became  vicar-general 
of  the  German  Augustinians,  and  the  teacher  of  Luther 
and  his  counsellor  in  the  early  stages  of  his  reform. 
He  was  a  man  without  stain  and  above  reproach,  a 
saint  in  the  estimation  of  Protestant  and  Catholic  alike, 
an  apostle  of  love  and  good  works.  He  ranks  wdth 
Erasmus  and  Sir  Thomas  More  among  those  irenic 
spirits  that  sought  a  reform  of  the  Church  from  within. ^ 
Luther  was  strongly  influenced  by  his  practical  mysticism 
and  calls  him  his  '  reverend  father  in  Christ,'  '  per  quem 
primum  coepit  Evangelii  lux  de  tenebris  splendescere  in 
cordibus  nostris.'  ^  His  chief  mystic  works  are  Von 
der  Nachfolgung  des  willigen  Sterhens  Christi,  Von  der 
Liebe  GotteSy  and  Von  dem  heiligen  rechten  christUchen 
Glauben. 

9.  Humanism  in  England  was  represented  chiefly  by 
Linacre,  Sir  Thomas  More,  and  Colet. 

Sandys  says  that  '  Modern  English  scholarship  begins 
with  Linacre  and  his  two  friends,  William  Grocjoi  and 
William  Latimer.'  *  These  introduced  the  humanistic 
classic  study  into  the  British  universities. 

1  Lindsay,  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  p.  75. 
8  Vide  Briorgs,  Church  Unity,  p.  420. 
8  Vide  Schaff,  vol.  vi.  p.  119,  n.  1. 
<  Sandys,  ii.  p.  228. 


100    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

1.  Thomas  Linacre  (c.  1460-1524)  was  a  nephew  and 
pupil  of  William  Selling,  the  first  English  Humanist  to 
study  Greek.  Linacre  studied  at  Oxford,  and  became 
Fellow  of  All  Souls  (1484).  A  year  or  two  later  he  went 
to  Italy,  studied  with  Humanists  in  Rome,  Florence, 
and  Venice,  and  graduated  in  medicine  at  Padua  (1492). 
Returning  to  England  he  gave  lectures  on  Aristotle's 
Meteor ologica,  which  were  attended  by  Sir  Thomas  More, 
either  at  Oxford  or  London.  In  1509  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  King  Henry  viii.,  and  nine  years  later  he 
founded  the  College  of  Physicians.  Li  addition  to  his 
scientific  treatises  and  translations  he  wrote  De  emen- 
data  structura  latini  sermonis,  which  was  reprinted  on 
the  continent  with  a  letter  of  recommendation  by 
Melanchthon. 

2.  John  Cold  (c.  1467-1519)  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
then  for  three  years  in  Italy,  where  he  learned  the  rudi- 
ments of  Greek.  Returning  to  Oxford  he  introduced 
there  the  study  of  Plato,  and  gave  lectures  on  the  New 
Testament  '  like  one  inspired.'  *  Among  his  hearers 
were  all  the  doctors  of  Oxford.^  At  this  time  Erasmus 
visited  Oxford,  and  became  his  intimate  friend.  In 
1504  Colet  was  made  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  where  he 
introduced  expository  preaching,  and  founded  a  great 
school.  According  to  Erasmus,  Colet  united  '  the  highest 
learning  with  admirable  piety,'  and  '  exerted  a  great  and 
general  influence.'  England  had  not  '  another  more 
pious,  or  one  who  more  truly  knew  Christ.'  AVhen  he 
died,  Erasmus  exclaimed  :  '  Wha.t  a  man  England  has 
lost,  and  I — what  a  friend  ! '  '  Colet's  tract,  A  Right 
Fruitful  Admonition  concerning  the  Order  of  a  Good 
Christian  Man's  Life,  was  first  published  in  1534,  and 
afterwards  incorporated  in  a  book  of  Daily  Devotions. 

1  Vidt  Plummer,  English  Church  History,  1509-1675,  p.  29. 
«  Vide  Erasmus,  Epp.  108,  290. 
8  Vide  Schiiff,  y.,  part  ii.  p.  652. 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  101 

3.  Thomas  More  (1478-1535)  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
then  went  to  London  for  the  study  and  practice  of  law. 
He  became  the  most  able  and  learned  jurist  of  his  time  ; 
but  was  also  interested  in  theology,  and  lectured  in 
London  on  Augustine's  City  of  God,  In  1529  More 
succeeded  Wolsey  as  Lord  Chancellor.  Five  years  later 
he  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  in  1535  was  beheaded. 
Erasmus  ^vrites  of  yielding  to  the  influence  of 

'  Thomas  More,  whose  eloquence  is  such  that  he  could  persuade 
even  an  enemy  to  do  whatever  he  pleased,  while  my  own  affection 
for  the  man  is  so  great,  that  if  he  bade  me  dance  a  hornpipe,  I 
should  do  at  once  just  as  he  bade  me.  ...  I  do  not  think,  unless 
the  vehemence  of  my  love  leads  me  astray,  that  Nature  ever 
formed  a  mind  more  present,  ready,  sharp-sighted,  and  subtle, 
or,  in  a  word,  more  absolutely  furnished  with  every  kind  of 
faculty  than  his.  Add  to  this  a  power  of  expression  equal  to  his 
intellect,  a  singular  cheerfulness  of  character  and  an  abundance 
of  wit,  but  only  of  the  candid  sort ;  and  you  miss  nothing  that 
should  be  found  in  a  perfect  advocate.'  ^ 

More  maintained  the  rights  of  the  crown  of  England 
over  against  papal  encroachment,  and  the  rights  of  the 
pope  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  Church  over  against  the 
royal  ecclesiastical  supremacy.  He  died  a  martyr  to 
the  great  cause  of  the  separation  of  the  jurisdictions  of 
Church  and  State.  More's  great  work  is  his  Utopia,  in 
which  he  embodies  his  ideas  of  reform.  Among  his 
T\Titings  are  controversial  tracts  against  Luther  and 
Tj^dale. 

4.  John  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester  (f  1535),  was 
trained  at  the  university  of  Cambridge,  and  served  there 
as  master,  vice-chancellor,  professor  of  divinity  and 
chancellor.  He  took  part  in  the  establishment  of  Christ's 
College  and  St.  John's,  and  was  president  of  Queens' 
College  for  a  time.  Erasmus  calls  him  '  that  great 
chieftain  of  literature  and  piety.'  ^  Fisher  admired 
Reuchlin  and  Erasmus,  but  wrote  against  Luther  and 

1  Erasmus,  Ep.  191.  2  vide  Erasmus,  Ep.  446. 


102    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

(Ecolampadius.     As  an  opponent  of  the  royal  supremacy 
he  shared  the  fate  of  More. 

The  English  Humanists,  like  the  Continental,  desired 
a  peaceable  reform  by  education,  not  a  revolution.  They 
were  in  general  accord  with  Erasmus,  who  wrote  of  them  : 

*  I  have  found  in  England  ...  so  much  learning  and  culture, 
and  that  of  no  common  kind,  but  recondite,  exact  and  ancient, 
Latin  and  Greek,  that  I  now  hardly  want  to  go  to  Italy,  except 
to  see  it.  When  I  Usten  to  my  friend  Colet,  I  can  fancy  I  am 
listening  to  Plato  himself.  Who  can  fail  to  admire  Grocyn,  with 
all  his  encyclopaedic  erudition  ?  Can  anything  be  more  acute, 
more  profound,  more  refined,  than  the  judgment  of  Linacre  ? 
Has  nature  ever  moulded  anything  gentler,  pleasanter  or  happier, 
than  the  mind  of  Thomas  More  ?  '  ^ 

These  men  wished  a  reform  through  a  study  of  the 
original  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers. 

Among  the  Humanists  of  England  who  sought  to 
promote  theological  education  were  also : 

6.  Cardinal  Wolsey  (f  1530),  founder  of  Christ  Church  (College), 
Oxford  ;  6.  Warham,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (f  1532),  whom 
Erasmus  praised  as  '  the  patron  of  all  the  learned  '  ;  ^  and  7. 
Richard  Fox,  of  Winchester  (f  1528),  founder  of  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  and  of  the  first  Greek  lectureship  in  an  English 
university.*  Sir  Thomas  More  saw  no  reason  to  prefer  the  uni- 
versities of  Paris  and  Louvain  to  those  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.* 
Erasmus  wrote  in  1516  :  '  About  thirty  years  ago  nothing  was 
taught  at  Cambridge  but  Alexander,  the  Parva  Logicalia,  as  they 
are  called,  those  old  "  dictates"  of  Aristotle,  and  questions  from 
Scotus.  In  process  of  time  Good  Letters  were  introduced  ;  the 
study  of  Mathematics  was  added,  and  a  new  or  at  least  a  renovated 
Aristotle.  Then  came  some  acquaintance  with  Greek,  and  with 
many  authors,  whose  very  names  were  unknown  to  the  best 
scholars  of  a  former  time.  Now  I  ask,  what  has  been  the  result 
to  the  University  ?  It  has  become  so  flourishing,  that  it  may  vie 
with  the  first  schools  of  the  age,  and  possesses  men,  compared  with 
whom  those  old  teachers  appear  mere  shadows  of  theologians.'  • 

1  Vide  Sandys,  ii.  p.  229.  2  Erasmus,  Up.  242. 

8  Vide  Briggs,  Th-foJogical  Symhnlics,  pp.  159  seq. 

*  Vide  Nichols,  Epistles  of  Erasmus,  ii.  p.  224. 

*  Erasmus,  Ejp.  441. 


CH.  I.]  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  103 

10.  The  Humanists  gradually  succeeded  in  transforming 
the  greater  part  of  the  universities  and  schools  of  Europe 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  study  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classics,  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Scriptures,  and  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers,  was  gradually  introduced, 
and  the  Scholastic  Theology  was  pushed  into  the  background. 

This  transformation  took  place  in  Italy  and  Spain,  no 
less  than  in  Germany  and  England  ;  and  was  permanent 
in  its  results.  The  Humanist  reformation  was  inter- 
rupted, and  the  Humanists  were  divided  into  hostile 
camps,  by  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  Reformation, 
led  by  Luther  and  Zwingli.  This  was  a  reformation  of 
religion,  which  pushed  the  reformation  of  scholarship 
into  the  background.  Its  immediate  effects  were 
disastrous  to  scholarship,  especially  in  Northern  Europe. 
Insurrections  and  civil  wars  spread  rapidly  over  Europe, 
and  continued  to  work  mischief  for  more  than  a  century. 
But  there  was  a  permanent  gain  to  theological  scholarship 
in  spite  of  all.  The  Holy  Scriptures  were  studied  in  the 
original  languages  by  all  the  great  scholars  of  the  time, 
and  Biblical  texts  were  published  by  Protestants, 
Catholics  and  Jews. 

In  Spain  the  Complutensian  Polyglot  was  published  by  Cardinal 
Ximenes  (1514-1517).  In  Italy  the  Octaplum  Psalterium  was 
issued  at  Genoa  by  Bishop  Justinianus  in  1516,  the  Aldine  text 
of  the  Septuagint  at  Venice  in  1518.  Erasmus  pubHshed  his 
Greek  Testament  at  Basel  in  five  editions  (1516-1535).  From 
the  second  edition  (1519)  Luther  made  his  translation.  Stephens 
pubUshed  three  editions  in  Paris  (1546-1550),  and  one  in  Geneva 
(1551).  The  Hebrew  Bible  was  printed  at  Soncino,  Lombardy, 
in  1488,  and  at  Naples  in  1491-1493.  Another  edition  was 
printed  at  Brescia  in  1494,  which  Luther  used  in  making  his 
version.  The  same  text  appeared  in  Bomberg's  Rabbinical 
Bible  (1516-1517),  edited  by  Fehx  Pratensis.  A  second  Rab- 
binical Bible  was  published  by  Bomberg  in  1524-1525,  carefully 
revised  after  the  Massora  by  Jacob  ben  Chajim.^    The  IVIishna 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  186  seq.,  206  seq. 


104    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

was  published  at  Naples  in  1492,  the  Babylonian  Talmud  at 
Venice  bv  Bomberg  (in  twelve  volumes  folio,  1520),  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud  "at  Venice  by  Bojnberg  (1522-1523).  The  Christian 
Fathers  were  also  published  in  original  editions,  as  well  as  the 
heathen  classics  in  Greek  and  Latin,  by  the  great  presses  at  Venice, 
Basel,  Paris,  Geneva  and  elsewhere. 

The  whole  world,  Jew  and  Christian,  Catholic  and  Pro- 
testant, had  Hebrew  and  Christian  antiquity  opened 
to  them  as  never  before. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REF0R]V1ATI0N  106 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   REFORMATION 

The  New  Learning  made  its  way  gradually  into  the 
midst  of  the  universities  and  schools  of  Europe,  not  with- 
out severe  conflicts  with  the  Old  Learning.  The 
Humanists,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  divided  on  the 
deeper  question  of  religious  reform.  The  most  of  the 
Humanists  remained  Catholics,  with  Erasmus  and 
Reuchlin,  Sir  Thomas  More  and  Fisher,  John  Eck,  and 
the  Italian  and  Spanish  Humanists  in  a  body.  Few  of 
them  followed  Melanchthon  and  Calvin  into  the  Pro- 
testant camp.  The  Humanists  "wished  a  reform  by 
scholarship,  and  especially  by  a  return  to  Christian 
antiquity,  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers  in 
the  original  languages.  The  Protestants,  under  the  lead 
of  Luther  and  Zwingli,  were  more  concerned  to  bring 
about  a  religious  reform  and  do  away  with  the  abuses  of 
religion.  The  Humanists  in  the  main  were  unwilling 
to  sacrifice  Christian  scholarship  in  the  confusion  and 
storms  of  a  religious  revolution. 

1.  The  revival  of  the  study  of  Theology  was  due  in  the 
main  in  the  Protestant  world  to  Melanchthon  and  John 
Calvin,  and  among  Catholics  to  John  Eck  and  Ignatius 
Loyola. 

The  original  hostility  of  the  New  Learning  to  the  Old 
had  to  be  overcome,  and  a  more  comprehensive  plan 
devised  for  the  healthful  and  harmonious  combination  of 
the   two.     This   was   in   a   measure   accomplished   by 


106    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Melanchthon,  Calvin,  and  their  associates  among 
Protestants,  and  among  Catholics  especially  by  John 
Eck,  Ignatius  and  the  Jesuit  Order.  Calvin  and 
Ignatius  had  the  same  teachers  in  the  university  of  Paris, 
and  both  alike  saw  the  defects  of  the  university  educa- 
tion. Both  alike  organised  colleges  for  the  better  train- 
ing of  the  Christian  ministry. 

2.  Luther  introduced  new  life  and  spirit  into  theological 
education  in  Northern  Germany.  Melanchthon  gave  it 
form  and  organisation. 

1.  Martin  Luther  (1483-1546)  was  trained  in  law  at 
the  university  of  Erfurt,  entered  the  Augustinian  Order 
in  1505,  and  two  years  later  became  a  priest.  In  1508 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  newly 
established  university  of  Wittenberg,  where  he  continued 
his  studies  in  theology,  and  took  his  bachelor's  and 
doctor's  degrees.  About  the  year  1513  he  turned  to 
lecturing  on  the  Bible.  He  became  intensely  hostile  to 
the  Aristotelian  philosophy  and  to  Scholasticism,  and 
built  his  theology  on  the  Scriptures  and  on  St.  Augustine. 
He  gave  to  Wittenberg  a  Biblical  rather  than  a  human- 
istic character,  and  a  mystic  rather  than  a  dogmatic 
spirit.  The  master  of  the  German  Reformation  was 
a  professor  of  theology,  and  began  his  work  by  train- 
ing students  in  the  exegesis  of  the  Psalter  and  the  Pauline 
Epistles.  These  writings,  expounded  in  the  lecture- 
room  at  Wittenberg,  became  the  pillars  of  the  Re- 
formation. 

'  Hsec  scripta  sic  iUustravit,  ut  post  longam  et  obscuram 
noctem  nova  doctrinae  lux  oriri  videretur.'  ^ 

Luther  entirely  reformed  theological  instruction  by 
introducing  new  principles  and  new  methods.  The 
concrete  was  substituted  for  the  abstract,  the  intuitive 
method  for  the  analytical.     Luther  taught  the  Bible  in 

1  Melanchthon,  Vita  Lutheri,  p.  12 ;  vide  Gieseler,  iv.  p.  18,  n.  6. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  107 

place  of  the  Lombard  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  He  fol- 
lowed the  Apostles  and  Prophets  in  preference  to  the 
Fathers  and  the  Schoolmen.^  Above  all  '  he  recalled  the 
minds  of  men  to  the  Son  of  God.'  ^     He  said  : 

*  All  right  holy  books  agree  in  this,  that  they  altogether  preach 
and  urge  Christ.  This  also  is  the  true  touchstone  to  test  all 
books,  .  .  .  since  every  scripture  shows  Christ.'  ^ 

Luther  insisted  that  the  Scripture  should  be  its  own  in- 
terpreter, and  urged  the  one  literal  sense  against  the 
fourfold  sense,  yet  claimed  that  faith  was  absolutely 
essential  to  the  exegete. 

'  Every  word  should  be  allowed  to  stand  in  its  natural  meaning, 
and  that  should  not  be  abandoned  unless  faith  forces  us  to  it.' 
'  It  is  the  attribute  of  Holy  Scripture  that  it  interprets  itself  by 
passages  and  places  which  belong  together,  and  can  only  be 
understood  by  the  rule  of  faith.'  * 

Zwingli  said  : 

'  Luther  .  .  .  has  searched  out  the  meaning  of  Scripture  with 
greater  earnestness  than  any  one  on  earth  has  done  for  a  thousand 
years.  .  .  .  What  I  have  read  of  his  writings  (so  far  as  concerns 
dogma,  doctrine,  opinions,  and  the  sense  of  Scripture,  for  I  have 
nothing  to  do  with  his  quarrels)  is  generally  so  well  fortified  and 
grounded  in  the  Word  of  God,  that  it  is  not  possible  for  any 
creature  to  refute  them.'  * 

Ambrose  Blaurer  declared  in  1523 : 

•  Luther,  .  .  .  above  all  other  men,  has  so  restricted  his  under- 
standing, according  to  the  exhortation  of  Paul,  and  forced  it 
into  subjection  to  the  word  of  Christ,  that  he  seldom  decides  by 
his  own  opinion,  but  by  comparing  and  explaining  Scripture 
with  Scripture,  which  is  the  highest  art  in  commenting.'  ^ 

1  Vide  Briggs,  in  A  Symposiac  on  Martin  Luther  by  the  Professors  of 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  New  York,  1883,  pp.  9  seq. 

2  Melauchthoii,  Vita  Lutheri,  p.  12. 

3  Walch,  liv.  149  ;  vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  652  seq. 

4  Walch,  iii.  2042  ;  xix.  1601  ;  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  456. 

5  Zwingli,  Uslegung  des  XVIIl.  Art.,  1523;  vide  Gieseler,  iv.  p.  83, 
n.  39. 

6  Blaurer,  in  Fussli's  Beytrdge  zur  Reformationsgeschichtef  iv.  195; 
vide  Gieseler,  iv.  pp.  73  seq. ,  n.  119. 

VOL.  II.  H 


108    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Melanchthon  testifies  to  his  extraordinary  power  as  a 

teacher  : 

'  One  man  is  an  interpreter ;  another  a  logician  ;  and  still 
another  an  orator,  affluent  and  beautiful  in  speech  ;  but  Luther 
is  all  in  all.  .  .  .  Whatever  he  writes,  whatever  he  utters,  pierces 
to  the  soul,  fixes  itself  like  arrows  in  the  heart.'  ^ 

But  the  chief  merit  of  Luther  as  a  teacher  was  his  un- 
flinching fidelity  to  truth.  The  truth  of  God  swayed 
him  with  irresistible  power.  At  the  Diet  of  Worms 
(1521)  he  cried  :  '  My  conscience  is  bound  in  the  Word  of 
God  :  I  cannot  and  will  not  recant  anything.  .  .  .  Here 
I  stand.  I  cannot  do  otherwise.  God  help  me.'  ^ 
He  wrote  to  Melanchthon  in  1530  : 

*  To  your  great  anxiety,  by  which  you  are  made  weak,  I  am 
a  cordial  foe  ;  for  the  cause  is  not  ours.  ...  So  far  as  the  public 
cause  is  concerned,  I  am  well  content  and  satisfied  ;  for  I  know 
that  it  is  right  and  true,  and,  what  is  more,  it  is  the  cause  of 
Christ  and  God  Himself.  For  that  reason,  I  am  merely  a  spec- 
tator. If  we  fall,  Christ  will  likewise  fall ;  and  if  He  fall,  I  would 
rather  fall  with  Christ  than  stand  with  the  emperor.'  ^ 

Luther  first  appeared  as  a  reformer  in  the  publication  of 
ninety-five  Theses  against  the  sale  of  indulgences  (1517). 
He  claimed  that  he  was  upholding  the  Scriptures  and  the 
teaching  of  the  Church  ;  but  in  the  heat  of  controversy 
he  came  into  conflict  with  the  common  teaching  and 
practice  of  the  Church  as  expressed  in  the  writings  of 
great  theologians  and  in  papal  decrees.  He  challenged 
the  Scholastic  Theology  and  the  authority  of  the  pope, 
holding  that  only  a  general  council  could  finally  deter- 
mine articles  of  faith.  But  in  a  controversy  with  Eck 
at  Leipzig  (1519)  he  was  forced  by  inevitable  logic  to 
justify  Huss  in  some  matters,  and  so  to  deny  the  infallible 
authority  of  councils  as  well  as  of  popes.*    In  the  follow- 

1  Vide  Painter,  Luther  on  Education,  p.  108, 

2  Vide  Kidd,  Documents  Illustrative  of  the  Continental  Reformation, 
p.  85  ;  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  262  seq.,  271  seq. 

'  Vide  Kirn,  '  Melanchthon,'  in  Neio  Schajf-Uerzog  Encyclopedia. 
*  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  162  seq.,  165  seq. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  109 

ing  year  he  published  his  tracts  :  To  the  Christian 
Nobility  of  the  German  Nation,  The  Babylonian  Captivity 
of  the  Church,  and  The  Liberty  of  a  Christian  Man.  In 
these  he  apj)ealed  to  the  Scriptures  over  against  pope 
and  council.  Two  years  later  he  began  to  print  in  parts 
translations  of  the  Bible  in  German.^  This  work  was 
completed  in  1534,  but  he  continued  to  revise  it  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  secured  the  help  of  Melanchthon, 
Cruciger,  Bugenhagen,  Justus  Jonas,  and  Aurogallus.^ 
The  translation  was  based  upon  the  original  Hebrew 
and  Greek  texts,  compared  with  the  Vulgate  and  the  older 
German  versions.  Luther's  Bible  has  been  the  Bible 
of  the  German  people  from  that  day  to  this.  Widely 
scattered  in  cheap  editions,  it  greatly  helped  the  progress 
of  the  Reformation.  Luther  also  produced  numerous 
commentaries,  postillce  and  expository  sermons,  which 
were  of  great  influence.  The  Kirchenpostille  Luther 
calls  '  the  very  best  book  that  I  ever  made.'  ^  The 
commentaries  on  Genesis,  the  Psalms,  and  Galatians 
were  of  special  value.  In  addition  to  his  dogmatic  and 
polemic  writings  and  his  numerous  letters,  Luther 
published  works  of  fundamental  importance  for  symbolics 
and  liturgies.  His  catechisms  were  given  symbolical 
authority  by  the  Formula  of  Concord,  as  '  the  Bible  of  the 
laity.'  *  The  smaller  catecliism  is  an  abridgment  of  the 
larger,  and  is  based  on  the  Decalogue,  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Sacraments.  In  the 
preface  to  the  Larger  Catechism  Luther  writes  : 

*  I  read  and  recite  word  by  word,  in  the  morning  and  when  I 
have  leisure,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Articles  of  the  Creed, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Psalms,  etc.  .  .  .  and  I  must  remain  and 
do  cheerfully  remain  a  child  and  pupil  of  the  catechism.' 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  p.  168  ;  Siicdy  of  Holy  Scripture, 
pp.  216  seq. 

2  Vide  SchaflF,  History  of  Christian  Church,  vi.  pp.  346  seq. 
'  Walch,  XX.  1112  ;  vide  Gieseler,  iv.  pp.  554  seq.,  n.  12. 

*  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  11  seq. 


110    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Lohe  remarks  of  the  smaller  work :  '  No  other  catechism 
in  the  world  can  be  made  a  prayer  of  but  this.'  Leopold 
von  Ranke  cried  : 

*  Happy  he  whose  soul  was  nourished  by  it,  he  who  dings  to 
it !  He  possesses  .  .  .  under  a  thin  sheU  the  kernel  of  the 
Truth,  which  is  sufficient  for  the  wisest  of  the  wise.'  ^ 

Luther's  hymns  are  also  household  treasures  among 
the  German  people.  Luther  came  into  conflict  with 
Erasmus  on  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  with  Zwdngli 
on  the  Eucharist.  He  alienated  the  greater  number  of 
the  Humanists,  and  destroyed  the  unity  of  the  Reforma- 
tion by  insisting  that  it  should  go  in  his  way  and  in  no 
other.  He  lacked  the  faculty  of  nice  discrimination,  and 
did  injury  to  some  of  the  cherished  institutions  and  well- 
established  doctrines  of  Christianity.  But  the  Church 
was  in  bondage  to  a  vast  system  of  legalism,  and  it  was 
Luther  who  spoke  the  master  word  that  set  men  free. 
He  had  passed  through  an  experience  almost  identical 
with  that  of  St.  Paul,  and  so  was  enabled  to  understand 
him  better  than  any  one  since  Augustine.  It  was  the 
merit  of  Luther  that  he  set  forth  the  teaching  of  the 
Apostle  Paul  as  the  great  transforming  power  of  the  age.^ 
Like  the  Baptist,  '  monstravit  agnum  Dei,  qui  tulit 
peccata  nostra.'  ^ 

2.  Philip  Melanchthon  (1497-1560)  was  educated  in 
humanistic  studies  at  the  Latin  school  of  Pforzheim 
and  at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg  and  Tiibingen.  He 
was  strongly  influenced  by  Reuchlin,  his  great-uncle, 
and  later  by  Erasmus,  and  so  became  a  thorough 
Humanist.  CEcolampadius  recommended  him  to  the 
latter  as  '  a  person  plainly  worthy  of  Erasmus'  love, 
who  may  himself  become  a  second  Erasmus.'  *    Melan- 

1  Von  Ranke,  Deutsche  Geschichte  im  Zeitcdter  der  Reformation  (1852'), 
ii.  p.  357  ;  vide  SchafF,  Creeds  of  Christendom ,  i.  pp.  '2o0  seq. 

2  Vide  Briegs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  156  seq.,  167  seq.,  170  seq. 
8  Melanchthon,  Vita  Lutheri,  p.  12 ;  vide  Gieseler,  iv.  p.  18,  n.  6. 

4  Vide  Nichols,  ii.  p.  536. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFOR]VL\.TION  HI 

chthon  began  his  career  by  teaching  the  classics  at  Tubin- 
gen, and  then  went  to  Wittenberg  as  professor  of  Greek. 
At  Wittenberg  he  represented  the  humanistic  culture, 
which  he  combined  with  the  more  Biblical  methods  of 
Luther.  His  inaugural  address,  De  corrigendis  adoles- 
centice  studiis,  excited  extraordinary  interest,  and  his 
lecture- room  was  thronged  with  students.  In  1533  he 
reformed  and  reorganised  the  methods  of  the  university, 
and  this  reform  furnished  the  model  for  most  of  the 
Protestant  universities  of  Germany.  There  were  three 
professors  of  theology,  the  first  of  whom  lectured  on  the 
New  Testament,  and  the  second  on  the  Old  Testament, 
while  the  third  gave  a  more  practical  exposition  of  the 
Bible.  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  ethics  were  taught  in  the 
philosophical  faculty.  The  Sentences  of  the  Lombard 
and  the  old  compendium  of  dogmatic  were  done  away 
with.  Melanchthon  devoted  himself  for  a  time  chiefly 
to  the  philosophical  faculty,  in  strictly  humanistic 
studies  ;  but  such  interest  was  aroused  by  his  lectures 
on  the  Greek  Testament,  that  he  was  transferred  to  the 
theological  faculty. 

Matthesius  relates  that  he  came  to  Wittenberg  at  the  age  of 
twenty-five  (in  1529),  and  there  heard  Melanchthon  lecture  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  on  Rhetoric,  Dialectic  and 
Ethics  ;  also  Luther  on  Isaiah  ;  Jonas  on  the  Psalms  ;  Bugen- 
hagen  on  Corinthians  ;  Aurogallus  on  Hebrew  grammar ;  Frank 
of  Weimar  on  Greek,  etc.^ 

Melanchthon  became  the  great  theologian  of  the 
Lutheran  t^^e  of  the  Reformation.  He  rejected  the 
Scholastic  Theology ;  and,  following  the  method  of  the 
Positive  Theology,  based  his  teaching  on  the  Scriptures, 
especially  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  He  was  more 
comprehensive  in  his  scholarship  than  Luther,  and  more 
irenic  in  his  disposition.^     Luther  contrasts  himself  with 

1  Ft<fe  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  i.  p.  221. 
■  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Si/mholics,  pp.  168  seq. ,  203  seq. 


112    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

his  friend  in  the  preface  which  he  wrote  to  Melanchthon's 
Commentary  on  Colossians,  saying  : 

'  I  am  rough,  boisterous,  stormy,  and  altogether  warlike.  I 
am  born  to  fight  against  innumerable  monsters  and  devils.  I 
must  remove  stumps  and  stones,  cut  away  thistles  and  thorns, 
and  clear  the  wild  forests  ;  but  Master  PhiUppus  comes  along 
softly  and  gently,  sowing  and  watering  with  joy,  according  to 
the  gifts  which  God  has  abundantly  bestowed  upon  him.'  ^ 

After  the  death  of  Luther,  Melanchthon  developed 
still  more  in  the  irenic  and  humanistic  direction  toward 
which  he  was  naturally  inclined,  but  he  became  involved 
in  the  Interimistic  and  Adiaphoristic  Controversies,  and 
was  charged  with  yielding  too  much  in  the  interests  of 
peace.  The  Augsburg  Confession,  the  Apology  for  that 
Confession,  and  the  so-called  Variata  were  all  the  work 
of  Melanchthon.  He  also  prepared  other  symbols  in 
whole  or  in  part.^  His  Loci  communes  rerum  theologi- 
carum,  published  in  many  editions  (1521-1559),  grew  out 
of  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  Rom/ins.  Luther  called 
it,  '  liber  invictus,  non  solum  immortalitate,  sed  et  canone 
ecclesiastico  dignus.'  ^  It  became  the  standard  system  of 
theology  of  the  Lutheran  Reformation.  Dorner  classes 
it  with  Luther's  three  great  tracts  of  the  year  1520, 
saying  :  '  To  the  reformation  proclaimed  in  these  writings 
and  to  no  other  did  the  German  people  subscribe.'  * 
Melanchthon's  commentaries  were  also  of  great  value, 
especially  those  on  the  Romans  and  Colossians.  His 
numerous  writings  include  important  works  on  the 
sacraments,  worship,  and  government  of  the  Church, 
on  ethics,  homiletics,  catechetics,  and  pedagogics,  as 
well  as  on  dogma,  philosophy,  and  philology.  He 
perpetuated  the  influence  of  Reuchlin,  Wimpheling  and 

1  Vide  Schaflf,  vi.  p.  193. 

2  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  176  seq.,  184,  189  seq.,  193 
354  seq. 

^  Vide  Herrlinger,   *  Melanchthon,'  in   Herzog's    Real-Encyklojpddie^ 
18812. 
*  Dorner,  Oeschichte  der  protestantischen  Theologie,  p.  93. 


CH.  II.]  THE  REFORIVIATION  113 

Agricola  ;  and  he  was  the  first  Protestant  to  write  on 
the  proper  method  of  studying  theology,  and  the  first 
to  '  attempt  a  history  of  dogma.'  '  It  may  safely  be 
said  that  b}''  his  influence  every  department  of  theology 
was  advanced.'  ^ 

The  most  of  the  German  universities  became  Protes- 
tant :  Wittenberg,  Erfurt,  Leipzig,  Frankfort,  Greifswald, 
Rostock,  in  the  north  ;  and  Tubingen  and  Heidelberg,  in 
the  south  ;  also  Copenhagen  in  Denmark,  and  Upsala  in 
Sweden.  Upon  all  of  these  the  influence  of  Melanchthon 
was  strong.  New  universities  were  organised  under  the 
same  influence  at  Marburg  (1527),  Konigsberg  (1544), 
Jena  (1556-1558),  Helmstddt  (1576).  The  most  of  the 
universities,  however,  declined  after  the  Reformation, 
with  the  exception  of  Wittenberg  and  Marburg  in  the 
north,  and  Tiibingen  and  Heidelberg  in  the  south. 

Among  the  scholars  of  Wittenberg  were :  3.  Justus  Jonas  (f  1555), 
who  called  Erasmus  his  '  father  in  Christ,'  and  was  entrusted  by 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  with  the  translation  of  their  works  from 
German  into  Latin,  or  the  reverse  ;  4.  Johann  Bugenhagen 
(f  1558),  who  was  influenced  bj'  Erasmus  to  study  the  Scriptures, 
helped  Luther  in  his  Biblical  translation,  published  notable 
commentaries,  and,  as  superintendent  of  the  reform  in  Denmark, 
reorganised  the  University  of  Copenhagen  ;  5.  Matthias  Flacius 
Ilhjricus  (t  1575),  leader  in  the  Interimistic,  Adiaphoristic  and 
Synergistic  controversies,  author  of  works  of  great  value  to 
Church  historians  and  Biblical  exegetes,  among  them  the 
famous  Magdeburg  Centuries,  which  originated  with  him;  6. 
Martin  Chemnitz  (f  1586),  a  leader  in  the  preparation  of  several 
of  the  minor  Protestant  symbols  and  in  the  Adiaphoristic  and 
Eucharistic  controversies,  and  noted  for  his  polemic  against 
Rome,  especially  his  Examen  Concilii  Tridentini. 

The  University  of  Marburg  had  among  its  first  professors  of 
theology  :  7.  Franqois  Lambert  (t  1530),  a  Franciscan  of  Avignon 
who  came  under  the  influence  of  both  ZwingU  and  Luther,  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  Reformation  in  Hesse,  especially  in  the 
Homberg  Synod,  and  pubhshed  practical  commentaries  and 
dogmatic  and  polemic  treatises  ;    8.  Andreas  Hyperius  (f  1564), 

1  Kirn,  '  Melanchthon,'  in  Sew  Schaff-Hcrzog  Encyclopedia. 


114    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

*  the  spiritual  head  of  the  Hessian  Church '  and  '  the  father  of 
Practical  Theology,'  ^  who  wrote  works  of  great  importance,  De 
ratione  stuclii  theologici,  De  methodo  in  conscrihenda  historia 
ecclesiastica  consilium,  De  formandis  concionibus  sacris,  and 
valuable  commentaries. 

The  University  of  Konigsberg  numbered  among  its  professors : 
9.  Andreas  Osiander  (t  1552),  Hebrew  scholar,  controversialist, 
and  leader  of  the  Reformation  in  Niiremberg,  whose  works  include 
a  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  a  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  and  various 
polemic  treatises.  He  is  to  be  distinguished  from  his  son  Lnicas 
(t  1604),  also  preacher,  teacher,  controversiaUst,  and  the  author 
of  important  Biblical,  historical  and  doctrinal  works. 

Among  the  theologians  of  Heidelberg  were  :  10.  John  Brenz 
(t  1570),  the  leading  reformer  of  the  Duchy  of  Wiirtemberg, 
active  in  many  of  the  religious  controversies  of  the  time  and  in 
the  reform  of  the  University  of  Tubingen  (1537),  author  of  the 
Confessio  Wirtembergica,  the  Church  Order  of  1553-1559,  and  of 
several  catechisms  of  great  usefulness  ;  also  an  exegete  of  whom 
Luther  said  :  '  No  one  of  the  theologians  of  our  time  so  explains 
and  discourses  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  does  Brentius ;  in  such 
a  way  that  I  often  wonder  at  his  mind,  and  doubt  my  own 
capacity.  I  believe  that  no  one  of  us  could  do  what  he  has 
done  in  explanation  of  the  Gospel  of  John.'  ^  11.  Zacharias 
Ursinus  (f  1583),  an  associate  of  Melanchthon  at  Wittenberg,  and 
teacher  in  the  Collegium  Sapieniice  at  Heidelberg,  who  helped  to 
prepare  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  wrote  on  the  Augsburg 
Confession  and  the  Formula  of  Concord ;  12.  Caspar  Olevianus 
(t  1587),  trained  in  theology  at  Geneva,  whose  chief  work  was 
done  at  Heidelberg,  in  the  preparation  of  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism, in  teaching,  preaching  and  church  organisation. 

At  the  University  of  Leipzig  valuable  work  was  done  in  pre- 
paration for  a  sounder  exegesis  of  the  Greek  Testament  by  the 
Greek  scholar :  13.  Camerarius  (f  1574),  a  disciple  of  Melan- 
chthon. 

The  leading  spirit  in  the  University  of  Rostock  in  his  day  was : 
14.  Chytrceus  (f  1600),  another  pupil  of  Melanchthon  and  '  the 
last  of  the  fathers  of  the  Lutheran  Church.'  He  was  a  mediating 
theologian,  atid  an  encyclopaedic  scholar,  and  produced  RegulcB 
studiorum,  De  studio  theologioe  recte  inchoando  (1562,  1572),  and 
other  works  of  great  influence  in  the  fields  of  dogmatics,  cate- 
chetics.  Church  history  and  Bibhcal  exegesis. 


1  Achelis,  '  Hypcrius,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Enci/dopedia. 
s  Walch,  xxii.  2290 ;  vide  Gieseler,  ir.  p.  555,  n.  14. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  115 

The  University  of  Tubingen  trained  such  scholars  as :  15.  Jacob 
Andrece  (f  1590),  who  helped  to  prepare  the  Swabian-Saxon 
Concordia,  the  Torgau  Book,  and  the  Formula  of  Concord,  and 
wrote  De  instauratione  studii  theologici,  De  studio  sacrarum 
literarum,  and  numerous  other  works  ;  16.  Piscator  (f  1625), 
author  of  a  German  version  of  the  Bible,  Latin  commentaries  on 
both  Testament'5,  and  an  Anhang  des  herbonischen  biblischen 
Wercks,  '  noted  for  its  wealth  of  archaeological,  historical,  and 
theological  material.'  ^ 

In  the  University  of  Copenhagen  the  Danish  theologian :  17. 
Niels  Hemmingsen  (f  1600),  a  devoted  pupil  of  Melanchthon, 
taught  for  thirty-seven  years  (1542-1579).  He  published  valu- 
able works  in  Exegetical,  Doctrinal  and  Practical  Theology, 
including  the  Warj  of  Life  (1570,  English,  1575),  in  which  the 
material  is  arranged  on  the  principle  of  the  Law  and  the  Gospel.  ^ 

3.  The  University  of  Basel  perpetiuzted  the  influence  of 
Erasmus,  hut  went  over  to  the  Zwinglian  type  of  the  Re- 
formation under  the  chief  reformer  (Ecolampadius. 

1.  (Ecolampadius  (Johann  Heussgen,  1482-1531)  was 
trained  at  Heilbroim.  then  studied  law  at  Bologna,  and 
at  last  philosophy  and  theology  at  Heidelberg,  where 
he  was  greatly  influenced  by  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the 
Scholastic  Mystics,  especially  Richard  of  St.  Victor  and 
Gerson.  He  spent  some  j'ears  in  tutoring  and  preaching, 
and  then  went  to  Tiibingen,  where  he  met  Melanchthon. 
In  1514  he  returned  to  Heidelberg,  and  the  following 
year  was  called  to  preach  at  Basel.  There  he  entered 
into  fellowship  with  Erasmus,  and  helped  him  in  the 
publishing  of  his  Greek  Testament.  In  1516  he  began 
to  lecture  on  the  New  Testament  in  the  university,  and 
two  years  later  he  assisted  Erasmus  in  his  second  edition 
of  the  Greek  text.  The  group  of  scholars  to  which  both 
belonged  is  thus  described  by  Erasmus  : 

*  I  seem  to  be  Hving  in  some  charming  sanctuary  of  the  Muses, 
where  a  multitude  of  learned  persons,  and  learned  in  no  common 
fashion,  appears  a  thing  of  course.     No  one  is  ignorant  of  Latin  ; 

1  E.  F.  Karl  Miiller,  '  Piscator,'  in  A^'ew  Schaff-H&rzog  Encyclopedia. 

2  Vide  BriggB,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  8  set^. 


116    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

none  of  Greek  ;  most  of  them  know  Hebrew.  This  one  excels 
in  the  study  of  History,  that  one  is  deeply  versed  in  Theology ; 
one  is  skilled  in  Mathematics,  another  is  a  student  of  Antiquity, 
and  another  is  learned  in  the  Law.  Certainly  up  to  this  time  it 
has  never  been  my  good  fortune  to  live  in  such  an  accomplished 
society.  But  not  to  dwell  upon  that,  what  a  sincere  friendship 
prevails  among  them  all,  what  cheerfulness,  what  concord ! 
You  would  swear  they  had  only  one  mind  among  them.'  ^ 

In  1520  the  mystic  tendencies  of  (Ecolampadius  led 
him  to  retire  to  a  monastery  ;  but  after  two  years  he  left, 
and  became  the  chaplain  of  Franz  von  Sickingen.  A  few 
months  later  he  accepted  a  call  to  Basel,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  became  a  leader  of  the 
Reformation  in  Basel,  though  not  its  originator.  After  a 
long  conflict  the  reforming  party  triumphed  (1529),  and 
Simon  Grynceus  (f  1541)  and  Sebastian  Milnster  were 
added  to  the  faculty  of  the  university.  The  lectures  of 
CEcolampadius  in  the  university  were  chiefly  upon  the 
Scriptures,  and  his  commentaries  are  among  the  most 
valuable  of  the  time.  His  writings  include  sermons, 
exegetical  and  polemical  treatises,  letters  and  transla- 
tions from  the  Fathers.  He  stood  in  close  relations  with 
Zwingli,  and  aided  Bucer  in  his  efforts  for  peace.  At  the 
conference  of  Marburg  (1529)  he  showed  a  conciliatory 
spirit,  and  in  the  following  years  he  continued  to  work 
for  union.  In  1534  he  drew  up  with  the  help  of  Myconius 
the  first  Confession  of  Basel,  which  is  simple  and  mode- 
rate in  statement. 2 

The  successor  of  CEcolampadius  at  Basel  was :  2.  Oswald  My- 
conius (t  1552),  an  associate  of  Zwingli,  who  helped  to  prepare 
both  the  First  Confession  of  Basel  and  the  First  Helvetic  Con- 
fession. 

Among  the  theologians  trained  at  Basel  may  be  mentioned : 
3.  Urbanus  Rhegius  (f  1541),  a  follower  of  Eck,  who  came  under 
the  influence  of  Erasmus  and  Zwingh,  and  took  his  doctor's 
degree  at  Basel.     He  became  a  leader  of  the  Reformation  in 

1  Erasmus,  Ep.  366. 

8  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symholics,  p.  1 85. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  117 

Liineburg  and  Hannover,  and  published  numerous  doctrinal  and 
polemical  works,  many  of  which  were  translated  into  English ; 
4.  Johannes  a  Lasco  (t  1560),  author  of  the  Emden  Catechism 
and  the  Con-fessio  Londinensis,  a  friend  of  Erasmus  and  other 
leading  Humanists,  who  was  charged  with  the  superintendence  of 
all  the  churches  in  East  Friesland  (c.  1542),  of  all  the  congrega- 
tions of  foreign  Protestants  in  London  (1550),  and  of  all  the 
Reformed  churches  in  Little  Poland  (c.  1557). 

4.  Zwingli  began  a  revival  of  the  study  of  Theology  in 
Zurich  ;  a7id  his  influence  was  carried  on  by  Bullinger, 
who  organised  both  common  and  theological  education,  and 
laid  the  basis  for  the  subsequent  university. 

1.  Huldreich   Zwingli    (1484-1531)    was   educated    at 
Bern  and  Vienna,  and  finally  at  Basel,  where  Thonms 
Wyttenhach  (f  1526),  professor  of  theology,  taught  him 
'  to  seek  remission  of  sins  in  the  death  of  Christ  alone.'  ^ 
He  began  his  work  as  pastor  at  Glarus  in  1506  ;  and  some 
years  later,  under  the  influence  of  Erasmus,  he  under- 
took the  study  of  the  Greek  Testament,  that  he  might 
'  draw  the  doctrine  of  Christ  from  the  original.'  ^     In 
1516  he  removed  to  Einsiedeln,  where  he  began  to  pro- 
claim the  mediatorial  work  of  Christ  and  the  authority 
of  the  Scriptures.     Three  years  later  he  was  called  to  the 
Great  Minster  at  Ziirich,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death.     In  Ziirich  he  studied  Hebrew  with  a  pupil  of 
Reuchlin,  and  began  a  series  of  expository  sermons  by 
which  he  covered  the  entire  New  Testament,  save  for  the 
Apocalypse,  in  four  years.     These  sermons  produced  a 
profound  impression.     In  1523  he  published  sixty- seven 
Theses,  exalting  Christ  as  the  only  Saviour,  and  Holy 
Scripture  as  the  only  infallible  authority.     These  articles 
are  more  comprehensive  and  dogmatic  than  those  of 
Luther.     They  may  be  regarded  as  the  basis  of  the  Swiss 
Reformation.     Zwingli  defended  them  in  a  series  of  dis- 
putations.    He  began  his  work  of  reform  independently 

1  Vide  Schaflf,  vii.  pp.  23  seq.  *  Vide  Gieseler,  iv.  p.  78,  n.  17. 


118    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOI  OGY     [pt.  n. 

of  Luther,  and  from  a  different  point  of  view.  He  was 
stirred  against  idolatry  rather  than  against  the  abuse  of 
indulgences.  But,  like  Luther,  he  appealed  to  the 
Scriptures.^  In  1525  Zwingli  introduced  in  Ziirich  the 
study  of  the  Bible  in  Hebrew,  Greek  and  Latin,  forming 
a  kind  of  theological  school.  It  seems  to  have  been  to 
some  extent  a  revival  of  the  ancient  cathedral  school. 
Under  the  name  of  the  Carolinum  it  developed  into  a 
famous  institution.  Myconius  declared  that,  if  Zwingli 
had  lived  to  bring  his  plan  to  complete  fulfilment,  this 
school  would  have  had  no  equal. ^  Bullinger,  Myconius, 
Pellican,  Bibliander  and  other  noted  scholars  took  part 
in  the  building  up  of  the  institution.  Zwingli  sent  a  con- 
fession of  faith  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  (1530),  and  an 
Exposition  of  the  Christian  Faith  to  Francis  i.  (1531).  He 
wrote  a  Commentarius  de  vera  et  falsa  religione,  which  is 
said  to  be  '  the  first  systematic  exposition  of  the  Re- 
formed faith  ' ;  ^  also  treatises  on  Divine  Providence  and 
Christian  education,  polemical,  exegetical,  liturgical,  and 
political  works,  sermons  and  letters. 

2.  Henry  Bullinger  (1504-1575)  was  educated  at 
Emmerich  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  and 
then  at  the  university  of  Cologne.  Influenced  by  a  study 
of  the  Fathers  and  the  Scriptures,  as  well  as  by  the 
writings  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  he  became  a 
Protestant  in  1522.  The  following  year  he  began  to 
teach  at  the  Cistercian  monastery  in  Kappel,  near 
Ziirich,  and  there  remained  for  six  years,  teaching  the 
classics  and  the  Bible.  He  became  a  close  friend  and 
supporter  of  Zwingli,  and  after  his  death  the  leader  of 
the  German  Swiss  Protestants.  Bullinger  raised  the 
schools  of  Zurich  to  a  high  standard  of  excellence,  and 
did  much   to   promote   theological   scholarship.     Peter 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  169  seq. 
»  Vide   Chrif5toffel,    Iliddreich   Zwingli,   in    Leben  und  ausgewSMU 
Schriften  der  Vdter  und  Begriinder  der  reformirten  Eirche,  i.  p.  97. 
8  Vide  Schatf,  vii.  p.  63. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  119 

Martyr,  Pellican  and  BiBliander  were  called  to  teach  in 
the  Carolinum.  Protestant  refugees  from  France,  Italy, 
England,  and  Germany  came  to  Bullinger  for  refuge, 
like  Bucer  he  worked  on  behalf  of  Church  Unity,  and 
Beza  called  him  '  the  common  shepherd  of  all  Christian 
Churches.'  ^  He  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  First 
Helvetic  Confession  (1536),  and  joined  with  Calvin  in  the 
production  of  the  Consensus  Tigurinus  (1549),  which 
united  the  French  and  German  Swiss  on  a  common  plat- 
form. The  Second  Helvetic  Confession  (1566)  he  wrote 
as  his  own  confession  of  faith,  in  expectation  of  death 
(1562)  :  it  became  the  bond  of  unity  of  all  the  Reformed 
Churches.^  His  writings  consist  of  Latin  commentaries 
on  the  whole  New  Testament  save  the  Apocalypse  ; 
sermons  on  several  of  the  Prophets  and  on  the  Apoca- 
lypse ;  treatises  De  providentia,  De  gratia  Dei  justificante, 
De  Scripturce  sanctce  auctoritate  et  certitudine,  and  other 
dogmatic  works  ;  Sermonum  decades  quinque,  on  the 
Decalogue,  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  the  sacraments, 
highly  valued  in  England  and  Holland  ;  historical  works, 
and  letters  of  great  importance  for  the  history  of  the 
Reformation  ;  and  a  book  of  Church  Order,  prepared 
wdth  the  help  of  Leo  Judse,  which  remained  in  use  for 
three  centuries. 

Among  the  scholars  that  assisted  Zwingli  and  Bullinger  the 
most  important  was:  3.  Leo  Judoe.  (1482-1542).  He  was  trained 
at  Schlettstadt,  and  was  a  fellow-student  of  Zwingli  at  Basel. 
He  began  as  a  student  of  medicine  ;  but,  influenced  by  Wytten- 
bach's  lectures  on  Romans,  he  joined  Zwingli  in  the  study  of 
theology.  He  succeeded  his  friend  at  Einsiedeln,  and  afterwards 
became  his  colleague  and  helper  at  Ziirich  (1523).  He  prepared 
several  catechisms,  and  became  famous  for  his  work  as  a  trans- 
lator, especially  for  his  Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament.  He 
taught  Hebrew  in  the  Carolinum,  and  was  the  chief  of  the  group 
of  scholars  which  produced  the  Ziirich  Bible  (1525-1529).     What 

1  Vide  Schafr,  vii.  p.  207. 

2  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  186, 198,  196  seq. 


120    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Melanchthon  was  to  Luther,  that  Leo  was  to  Zwingli ;  and  he 
helped  Bullinger  to  carry  on  the  great  Reformer's  work. 

Prominent  among  the  reformers  of  Zurich  were  the  BiWical 
scholars  :  4.  Pellican  (f  1556),  a  disciple  of  Reuchlin,  and  former 
associate  of  fficolampadius  at  Basel,  who  taught  Hebrew  and 
Greek  at  Zurich  for  over  thirty  years,  and  pubUshed  Commen- 
taria  Bibliorum  ;  5.  Bihliander  (f  1564),  '  homo  grammaticus,'  a 
pupil  of  Pellican,  Capito,  CEcolampadius  and  Myconius,  and 
Zwingli's  successor  as  professor  of  theology,  regarded  by  Hot- 
tinger  as  the  father  of  Exegetical  Theology  in  Switzerland.^ 

Zurich  became  the  refuge  of  several  disciples  of  the  Spanish 
mystic,  Juan  de  V aides  (f  1541),  who  produced  a  profound  im- 
pression by  his  tract,  Del  Beneficio  di  Christo,  and  in  his  Alfabeto 
christiano  summed  up  Christian  perfection  in  holy  love.  One  of 
the  most  noted  of  his  many  followers  was:  6.  Pietro  Martire 
Vermigli  (1500-1562),  prior  of  the  Augustinians  at  Lucca,  who 
sought  to  reform  theological  study  in  his  monastery,  and  pub- 
lished a  tract  on  the  Twelve  Articles  of  the  Christian  Faith. 
Called  to  account  by  his  Order,  he  retired  to  Strasburg,  and  there 
became  professor  of  Hebrew  (1543-1547).  Cranmer  invited  him 
to  England,  and  he  was  made  professor  of  Divinity  at  Oxford 
(1549).  Forced  to  leave  England  by  Mary's  accession,  he  finally 
settled  at  Ziirich  (1555),  where  he  taught  Hebrew  in  the  Carol- 
inum.  His  principal  writings  are  commentaries.  Loci  communes^ 
and  doctrinal  tracts.  Among  his  disciples  at  Lucca  was  Zanchi 
(t  1590),  who  taught  Hebrew  at  Strasburg  (1553)  and  theology 
at  Heidelberg  (1568),  and  wrote  on  the  nature  of  God,  His  works 
and  His  law. 

7.  Bernardino  Occhino  (1487-1564),  a  native  of  Siena  and 
member  of  the  new  order  of  Capuchins,  became  the  most  popular 
preacher  of  Italy  after  Savonarola.  He  was  strongly  influenced 
by  Juan  de  Valdes  and  Peter  Martyr,  and  was  suspected  of 
heresy.  Taking  refuge  in  Geneva  (1542),  he  published  many 
volumes  of  sermons  and  a  commentary  on  Romans.  Calvin 
praised  him  for  '  eminent  learning  and  exem.plary  life.'  ^  In 
1547  he  was  called  to  England  by  Cranmer,  and  for  some  years 
worked  in  London  as  an  evangelist  (1547-1554).  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Mary  he  removed  to  Ziirich,  where  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Lcelius  Socinus.  In  1561-1563  he  published  works 
which  excited  doubts  of  his  orthodoxy,  and  led  to  his  expulsion. 
Driven  from  place  to  place,  he  died  in  Moravia  the  following  year. 

1  Vide  Egli,  '  Bihliander,'  in  New  Schaff-Herxog  Encyclopedia. 
9  Vide  Schaflf,  vii.  p.  646. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  121 

Mention  may  also  be  made  of:  8.  Hospinian  (1547-1626),  who 
was  head  of  the  Carolinum  for  nearly  twenty  years,  and  produced 
numerous  polemical  and  historical  works,  especially  in  the  field 
of  Christian  Institutions. 

5.  John  Sturm  organised  the  gymnasium  of  Strasburg 
in  1538,  and  Martin  Bucer  organised  the  theological 
seminary  there  in  1544. 

John  Sturm  and  Martin  Bucer  were  jointly  responsible 
for  the  organisation  of  education  at  Strasburg. 

1.  Sturm  (1507-1589)  studied  in  the  famous  school  of 
Liege  and  the  university  of  Louvain,  and  began  his 
teaching  at  Paris.  Through  the  influence  of  Bucer' s 
writings  he  became  a  Protestant.  He  is  chiefly  respon- 
sible for  the  organisation  of  the  gymnasium  of  Strasburg 
(1538),  which  he  conducted  for  over  forty  years  as  the 
public  school  of  the  city.  According  to  his  plan  the 
study  was  carried  on  for  ten  years  in  as  many  classes. 
It  was  in  preparation  for  the  higher  studies  of  the 
learned  professions,  law,  medicine,  and  theology,  and 
was  humanistic  throughout.  Sturm's  aims  found 
expression  in  the  phrase  :  Sapiens  atque  eloquens  pietas  ; 
his  ideas  and  methods  in  the  treatise  :  De  literarum 
ludis  rede  aperiendis.  His  school  had  at  one  time  more 
than  a  thousand  pupils  assembled  from  all  parts.  Among 
the  teachers  of  theology  were  Bucer,  Calvin,  Capito, 
Hedio,  Peter  Martyr,  and  Fagius.  Sturm  was  called 
upon  to  organise  other  schools  on  the  model  of  that  at 
Strasburg.  His  writings  were  numerous,  including 
polemical  tracts  and  letters  of  value,  as  well  as  works  on 
pedagogy,  rhetoric,  etc. 

Among  the  pupils  of  Sturm  at  Paris  was  the  celebrated  Human- 
ist and  philosopher,  Petrus  Ramus  (f  1572),  noted  for  his  criticism 
of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  and  logic,  who  pubhshed  Com- 
mentariorum  de  religione  Christiana  libri  IV, 

2.  Martin  Bucer  (1491-1551)  was  trained  at  Schlett- 
stadt,  joined  the  Dominican  Order,  and  continued  his 


122    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

education  among  the  Humanists  at  Heidelberg.  He 
left  the  monastery  in  1520,  and  served  as  pastor  at 
Landstuhl,  Wissenburg,  and  finally  at  Strasburg  (1523), 
where  he  united  with  Zell,  Capito,  and  Hedio  in  the 
reformation  of  the  city.  He  organised  evangelical 
worship,  Church  government,  and  the  teaching  of 
theology.  Between  the  years  1524  and  1544  he  published 
no  less  than  three  catechisms,  and  in  1530  prepared  the 
Tetrapolitan  Confession  for  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.  He 
also  helped  Sturm  in  his  school,  and  subsequently,  in 
1544,  organised  a  seminary  for  training  in  theology. 
Bucer  was  the  chief  mediating  theologian  on  the  Re- 
formed side.  He  was  influenced  by  both  Luther  and 
Zwingli  ;  but  took  an  independent  position,  and  in  his 
turn  influenced  both  Calvin  and  Melanchthon.  It  was 
Bucer  who,  with  the  help  of  Melanchthon,  composed  the 
Consultation  of  Hermann  of  Cologne,  which  Cranmer 
used  in  the  preparation  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.^ 
Bucer  was  called  by  Cranmer  to  England,  and  settled 
at  Cambridge  in  1550,  only  to  die  the  following  year. 
His  remarkable  literary  activity  bore  fruit  in  the  fields 
of  Biblical  Exegesis,  Dogmatics,  Sjmibolics,  Apologetics, 
Polemics,  Irenics,  Liturgies,  Church  Order,  Pastoral 
Theology,  and  the  History  of  Councils  and  Conferences. 
As  an  exegete  he  deserves  special  mention.  Grjaiaeus 
wrote  to  him  in  1533  :  '  Palmam  tibi  in  sacris  Uteris 
inter  Germanos  concedo.'  ^ 

3.  Capito  (Wolfgang  Koepfel,  1478-1541)  was  educated  at 
Pforzheim  and  Ingolstadt,  and  finally  at  Freiburg,  where  he 
studied  medicine,  law  and  theology.  He  became  professor  and 
preacher  at  Basel  (1515),  and  there,  under  the  influence  of  Eras- 
mus and  other  Humanists,  took  up  the  study  of  the  Scriptures. 
Erasmus  describes  him  as  '  a  man  who,  besides  other  accomplish- 
ments, is  pre-eminently  skilled  in  three  tongues,  Greek,  Latin, 
and  Hebrew,  and  finally  is  a  person  of  so  much  integrity  and  piety; 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  174  seq.,  180  seq.,  184  seq.,  191. 

2  Vide  Gieseler,  iv.  p.  556,  n.  15. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORIVIATION  123 

that  I  have  never  seen  anything  more  stainless.'  ^  Capito  pub- 
lished a  Psalterium  hebraicum  (1516),  and  a  Hebrew  grammar  in 
several  editions  (1516,  1518,  1525),  translations  of  Hosea  and  of 
Chrysostom,  two  catechisms  (1527,  1529),  Von  der  Kirchen- 
liehlicher  vereinigung  (1533),  and  above  all  the  Berliner  Synodus 
(1532).  He  became  with  Bucer  a  leader  of  the  reform  in  Stras- 
burg,  and  assisted  him  in  preparing  the  TetrapoUtan  Confession 
(1530). 

4.  Caspar  Hedio  (1494-1552)  was  trained  at  Pforzheim, 
Freiburg  and  Basel,  and  became  one  of  the  leading  reformers 
at  Strasburg  (1523).  He  was  also  active  in  building  up  the 
schools  there,  and  taught  theology  in  the  higher  school.  He 
has  been  called  the  first  Protestant  Church  historian,  and  his 
works  include  translations  of  Eusebius,  Rufinus,  Sozomen,  etc., 
and  a  chronicle  extending  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to 
the  year  1543. 

The  successor  of  Capito  at  Strasburg  was:  5.  Paulus  Fagius 
(t  1549),  one  of  his  students,  and  a  pupil  of  Elias  Levita,  the  great 
Jewish  scholar,  who,  together  with  Jacob  hen  Chayim,  exerted 
a  strong  influence  upon  the  Protestant  reformers  in  their  study 
of  the  Old  Testament.2  Fagius  was  called  to  England  and 
appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Cambridge  (1549),  but  died 
soon  afterwards.  His  writings  are  on  the  Hebrew  language  and 
Old  Testament  exegesis. 

Among  the  students  of  Hebrew  at  Strasburg  in  the  time  of 
Capito  and  Bucer  was :  6.  Musculus  (Muesshn,  1 1563),  a  mediat- 
ing theologian  and  worthy  to  stand  with  Bullinger,  Qilcolam- 
padius  and  Melanchthon  by  the  side  of  Luther,  Zwingli  and 
Calvin,  as  one  of  the  great  exegetes  of  the  Reformation.^  In 
addition  to  his  valuable  commentaries  Musculus  pubhshed  trans- 
lations of  the  Greek  Fathers,  Loci  communes,  a  catechism,  and 
doctrinal  tracts.  He  preached  for  some  years  at  Augsburg,  but 
was  driven  from  there  by  the  Interim  (1548),  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Bern. 

6.  John  Eck  at  the  University  of  Ingolstadt  reformed 
the  study  of  Theology  by  a  combination  of  Positive  Theology 
vnth  Humanistic  studies  and  the  traditional  Catholic 
Theology. 

John  Eck  (1486-1543)   was  educated  at  Heidelberg, 

1  Nichols,  Epistles  of  Erasmus,  11.  p.  328. 

2  Vide  Brings,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  140  seq.,  219  seq. 

3  Vide  Briggs,  ibid.,  pp.  224,  457. 

VOL.  II.  I 


124    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Tubingen,  Cologne,  and  Freiburg,  at  which  last 
university  he  became  a  successful  teacher.  He  was 
called  to  a  theological  chair  at  Ingolstadt  in  1510  ;  and 
by  his  influence  there,  which  continued  until  his  death, 
he  made  it  the  great  Catholic  university  of  Germany. 
He  was  no  less  a  Humanist  than  Melanchthon,  and  no 
less  a  Biblical  scholar  than  Luther,  having  been  trained 
in  Greek  and  Hebrew  as  well.  He  differed  from  them 
in  maintaining  the  traditional  Roman  Catholic  Faith 
and  Institutions,  which  he  defended  wdth  such  great 
ability  that  he  was  regarded  as  the  chief  champion  of 
Rome  on  all  occasions.  His  Enchiridion  went  through 
forty-six  editions  between  1525  and  1576,  and  is  as 
truly  Positive  Theology,  based  on  the  Bible,  as  any  of 
the  writings  of  Luther  or  Melanchthon.  He  also  issued 
(1537)  a  German  translation  of  the  Bible  over  against 
that  of  Luther.^ 

Among  the  peacemakers  on  the  side  of  Rome  at  the  time  of 
the  Reformation  may  be  mentioned  :  1.  John  Gropper  (f  1559). 
a  follower  of  Erasmus  and  supporter  of  Hermann  of  Cologne 
in  his  first  efforts  at  reform.  Gropper  took  part  in  several  con- 
ferences on  behalf  of  Church  Unity,  and  drew  up  the  canons  of  the 
reforming  council  held  at  Cologne  in  1536.^  But  he  differed  from 
the  Protestants  irreconcilably  on  matters  concerning  the  Church, 
and  became  the  opponent  of  Hermann  after  the  appearance  of 
his  Reforming  Constitution.  Gropper's  chief  works  are  his 
Enchiridion  (1538),  and  Institutio  catholica  (1565),  in  which  ho 
makes  use  of  the  Positive  Theology.  2.  George  Cassander 
(t  1566),  the  greatest  of  all  the  Catholic  peacemakers,  in  his  De 
officio  pii  ac  puhlicce  tranquillitatis,  etc.  (1561),  and  his  Consuliatio 
(1564),  considers  the  differences  between  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants in  an  irenic  spirit  and  makes  useful  proposals  for  recon- 
ciliation.^ 3.  George  Witzel  (f  1573),  a  pupil  of  Erasmus,  in 
his  Methodus  concordice  ecclesiasticce  (1537)  urged  reforms  in 
doctrinal  statements  and  ecclesiastical  usages,  and  in  his   Via 

1  Vide  Graving,  Eck  als  junger  Gelehrter,  1906. 

2  Canones  provincialis  concilii  Coloniensis,  1538  ;  vide  Briggs,  Theo- 
logical  Symbolics,  p.  184. 

*  Vide  Briggs,  Church  Unity,  p.  421. 


CH.  n.l  THE  REFOR]\IATION  125 

regia  (1564)  proposed  the  laying  aside  of  scholastic  dogmatism 
and  a  return  to  the  simpUcity  of  doctrine  and  usage  of  the  early 
Church.i 

7.  The  Universities  of  Louvain  and  of  Alcald  combined 
Humanistic  studies  with  a  reformed  Scholasticism. 

The  University  of  Alcald,  Spain,  was  established  c.  1500 
by  Cardinal  Ximenes,  who  organised  several  colleges 
for  humanistic  studies,  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and 
for  the  study  of  theology.  The  theological  degrees  were 
given  the  precedence  of  all  the  others.  There  were  six 
professorships  of  theology  proper,  six  of  Church  Law, 
and  four  of  Greek  and  Hebrew.  Biblical  studies  were 
emphasised  by  those  who  gave  the  first  great  Polyglot, 
the  Complutensian,  called  after  the  ancient  Complutum, 
where  the  first  college  was  established.  Some  of  the 
greatest  scholars  of  Spain  took  part  in  this  work,  among 
them  Alphonso  de  Zamora,  also  Demetrius  Duais  of  Crete. 

The  University  of  Louvain  was  founded  in  Brabant 
c.  1425  with  all  the  faculties  save  that  of  theology, 
which  was  added  in  1431.  Louvain  was  given  in  charge 
of  the  Dominicans  and  became  the  great  seat  of  the 
Thomist  Theology.  Humanistic  studies  were  introduced 
c.  1517  by  the  establishment  of  the  Collegium  Trilingue 
after  the  model  of  that  of  Alcala,  for  the  study  of  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew.  These  two  reformed  universities, 
combining  Humanism  with  the  Scholasticism  of  Thomas 
Aquinas,  were  chiefly  responsible  for  the  ne\\'er 
Scholasticism  of  the  sixteenth  century,  which  put  aside 
the  corrupt  and  hair-splitting  Scholasticism  of  the 
fifteenth  century  and  reverted  to  the  pure  Scholasticism 
of  Thomas.  The  study  of  theology  throughout  the 
Roman  Catholic  world  was  greatly  influenced  by  this. 

1.  Ximenes  (f  1517)  rose  to  the  highest  positions  in  the  Church, 
as  archbishop  of   Toledo,  primate  of   Spain,  cardinal,  and  in- 

1   Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  20  seq. 


126    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n, 

quisitor-general.  He  reformed  the  clergy,  regular  and  secular, 
reorganised  and  strengthened  the  universities,  issued  the  Com- 
pluiensian  Polyglot,  and  revived  the  study  of  the  Scholastic 
Theology  of  Thomas  Aquinas. 

2.  Francisco  Vittoria  (f  1546)  was  influenced  by  Ximenes, 
and  became  the  father  of  the  newer  Scholasticism.  His  pupils, 
Melchior  Cano  and  Dominico  Soto,  exerted  immense  influence  in 
the  reformation  of  theology,  especially  in  the  Council  of  Trent. 

3.  Melchior  Cano  (|  1560),  of  the  Universities  of  Alcala  and 
Salamanca,  a  Dominican,  and  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Jesuits, 
maintained  in  his  Loci  theologici  the  fundamental  importance  of 
the  Positive  over  against  the  Scholastic  Theology.^ 

4.  Dominico  Soto  (f  1560)  was  noted  both  as  a  Biblical  exegete 
and  as  dogmatic  theologian. 

5.  Thomas  de  Vio  Cajetanus  (f  1534),  Italian  Dominican  and 
cardinal,  who  conferred  with  Luther  as  papal  delegate  (1518), 
was  one  of  the  foremost  scholastic  theologians  of  the  age,  and  the 
author  of  a  notable  commentary  on  Thomas  Aquinas.  But  he 
also  realised  the  importance  of  Biblical  study,  and  prepared  a 
literal  translation  of  the  Bible,  and  commentaries  on  most  of  its 
books. 

Among  the  Biblical  scholars  of  the  time  were  the  Dominicans : 
6.  Sanies  Pagninus  of  Lucca  (f  1541),  whose  studies  in  the 
Hebrew  language  bore  fruit  in  several  important  works,  including 
a  Latin  version  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  and  Isagogce  ad  sacras 
litteras  liber  I. ;  7.  Sixtus  of  Siena  (f  1560),  whose  Bihliotheca 
sancta  contains  valuable  material  for  Biblical  criticism  and  the 
history  of  exegesis  ;  ^  8.  the  cardinal,  Sadoleto  (f  1547),  a  member 
of  the  Oratory  of  Divine  Love,  and  one  of  the  ablest  men  in 
Rome  ;  ^  and  9.  Masius  (f  1573),  councillor  of  the  Duke  of  Cleves, 
and  collaborator  with  Arias  Montanus  and  others  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  Antwerp  Polyglot.* 

8.  John  Calvin  in  his  organisation  of  the  Academy  of 
Geneva  made  it  the  centre  and  norm  of  theological  education 
for  all  the  Churches  of  the  Reformed  type. 

The  Academy  of  Geneva  was  based  on  those  of  Stras- 
burg  and  Lausanne.  The  Academy  at  Lausanne  was 
organised  by  Mathurin  Cordier  in  1545.     It  was  preceded 

1  Vide  Heinrici,  Theologische  Encyklop'ddie,  pp.  271,  349. 

2  Vide  Heinrici,  ibid.,  p.  80. 

8  Vide  Briggs,  Theolngiccd  Symholics,  p.  161. 

4.  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  222,  250. 


CH.  u.]  THE  REFORMATION  127 

by  a  school  of  religion,  founded  by  the  citizens  of  Bern 
in  1537,  in  which  Viret  taught  the  Greek  Testament. 
The  Academy  of  Lausanne  was  the  first  academy  of  the 
Reformed  Church  using  the  French  language,  and  to  it 
large  numbers  of  Frenchmen  resorted.  In  1558  there 
were  as  many  as  seven  hundred  students.  Hebrew  was 
taught  there  by  Merlin,  theology  by  Rebit,  the  Hellenist, 
Greek  (after  1549)  by  Beza.  But  the  institution  was 
soon  eclipsed  by  the  Academy  of  Geneva,  founded  by 
Calvin  in  1559. 

1.  Mathurin  Cordier  (1479-1564)  was  one  of  the  chief  Human- 
ist teachers  of  France.  Ubicunque  docebit  Maturinus  Cordenus, 
florebunt  bonce  litterce.  He  had  been  the  instructor  of  Calvin 
at  Paris,  and  was  always  esteemed  by  him  as  a  great  teacher  and 
his  own  adviser  in  all  matters  of  education.  Calvm  dedicated 
his  'cmimentary  on  Thessalonians  to  Cordier,  saying:  'Your 
principles  have  been  to  me  of  such  help  that  I  regard  myself  as 
indebted  to  you  for  my  subsequent  progress.  And  I  have 
wished  to  bear  witness  to  posterity;  so  that,  if  they  should 
attach  any  value  to  my  writings,  they  may  recognise  that  these 
proceed  in  part  from  you.' 

In  1557  Cordier  resigned  from  the  headsliip  of  the  academy 
in  Lausanne  on  account  of  his  age,  but  two  years  later  was  called 
to  Geneva  to  assist  in  the  founding  of  the  Geneva  Academy. 
There  he  finished  his  famous  Colloquies,  which  were  pubhshed  in 
the  year  of  his  death.  . 

2.  William  Farel  (f  1565),  a  pupil  of  Staptdensis  at  Pans, 
and  an  associate  of  (Ecolampadius  at  Basel,  became  a  leader  of 
the  Reformation,  at  first  in  Geneva  (1532),  and  then  in  Neu- 
chatel.     It  was  Farel  who  secured  for  Geneva  the  services  of 

Calvin.  ,  ^  ,      . 

3.  Pierre  Viret  (t  1571),  the  reformer  of  Lausanne,  having 
worked  in  Geneva  as  Farel's  assistant  and  afterwards  at  Neu- 
chatel,  settled  as  pastor  and  teacher  in  Lausanne  for  twenty-two 
years.  In  1559  he  went  to  Geneva  as  preacher,  and  spent  his 
last  years  in  service  as  an  evangelist  at  Ximes,  Lyons  and  else- 
where, and  as  teacher  of  theology  in  the  Academies  of  Nimes 
(1561)  and  Orthez  (1566).  He  wote  many  useful  works  on  the 
Scriptures  and  Christian  Doctrine  and  Institutions,  the  most 
important  being  an  Instruction  chrestienne  en  la  doctrine  de  la 

oy  et  de  Vevangile. 


128    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

4.  John  Calvin  (1509-1564)  was  born  at  No3^on,  in 
Picardy,  and  went  to  Paris  to  study  for  the  priesthood 
(1523).  He  was  trained  in  the  classics  under  Cordier  at 
the  College  de  la  Marche,  and  then  was  transferred  to 
the  College  de  Montaigu,  which  Loyola  entered  before 
Calvin  left.  In  1528  he  turned  his  attention  to  legal 
studies,  and  went  to  Orleans,  and  in  the  following  year 
to  Bourges.  In  1531  he  returned  to  Paris  to  study 
theology.  There  the  Humanist  became  a  Protestant. 
In  1534  he  was  compelled  to  flee  from  Paris,  and,  after 
some  months  of  wandering,  retired  to  Basel,  where  he 
remained  for  over  a  year.  At  Basel  he  studied  Hebrew 
with  GryncBus,  and  completed  and  published  his 
Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1536),  the  most 
important  product  of  the  Positive  Theology  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Like  the  other  reformers,  Calvin 
discarded  the  Scholastic  Theology,  and  turned  to  the 
Scriptures  as  alone  possessed  of  divine  authority,  and 
to  the  Creeds  of  the  ancient  Church  as  valid  summaries 
of  the  doctrines  of  Scripture.  He  sought  his  material 
in  the  Bible,  and  his  structural  principle,  not  in  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy,  but  in  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
whose  order  he  followed  strictly,  only  making  a  fourfold 
instead  of  the  traditional  twelvefold  division.  That 
same  year  Calvin  went  to  Geneva,  and  there  took  part 
in  the  work  of  reform  ;  but  in  1538  he  was  forced  to 
retire.  He  then  went  to  Strasburg,  where  for  three  years 
he  preached  to  the  French  refugees  and  taught  in  the 
academy.  In  1541  he  was  recalled  to  Geneva,  and  at 
once  became  the  chief  reformer,  not  only  of  Geneva, 
but  also  of  Switzerland,  and  of  the  Reformed  branch  of 
Protestantism  in  all  other  countries.  Calvin  was  distin- 
guished especially  as  a  teacher,  and  by  his  practical  execu- 
tive ability.  His  chief  merit  as  a  reformer  was  in  the 
field,  not  of  doctrine,  but  of  institution  :  in  his  organi- 
sation of  the  Church  on  a  presbyterial  basis,  in  his  pre- 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  129 

paration  of  a  normal  liturgy  for  the  Reformed  Churches, 
and  in  his  establishment  of  a  thorough  theological 
education.^  He  greatly  valued  religious  education,  but 
was  obliged  to  devote  himself  at  first  to  more  essential 
things,  while  the  educational  part  of  the  reform  was 
carried  on  at  Lausanne.  But  in  1559  the  Geneva  Academy 
was  founded,  and  Beza  was  called  from  Lausanne  to  aid 
in  the  work. 

There  were  two  departments :  the  Schola  privata,  consisting 
of  seven  classes,  a  preparatory  school  in  the  Classics,  Dialectic 
and  Rhetoric  ;  and  the  Schola  puhlica,  in  which  theologians 
taught.  Courses  were  given  in  Theology,  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Biblical  Exegesis,  as  well  as  in  Physics,  Mathematics,  Dialectic 
and  Rhetoric.  Theology  was  taught  by  Calvin,  or  by  Beza.  A 
sermon  was  given  every  day,  special  pra3^ers  once  a  week  :  a 
conference  was  held  weekly,  so  also  a  discussion  on  theological 
questions,  making  the  total  number  of  hours  thirty  a  week,  five 
each  day.  At  the  time  of  Calvin's  death  (1564)  the  number  of 
students  in  his  academy  had  reached  1500. 

The  school  of  Calvin  educated  the  ministry  for  French 
Switzerland  and  Protestant  France,  and  many  of  the 
fathers  of  Scottish  and  English  Presbyterianism  were 
trained  there.  Among  Calvin's  own  students  were  John 
Knox,  Francois  du  Jon,  Lambert  Daneau,  and  many 
other  notable  theologians. 

Calvin  was  influential  also  as  a  practical  and  an  irenic 
theologian.  By  friendly  correspondence  with  Bullinger 
and  other  Z^vinglians  he  brought  the  German  and  French 
Swiss  into  harmony  and  unified  the  Reformed  Churches 
throughout  Europe.  He  kept  in  touch  with  the  leaders 
of  the  Church  of  England  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the 
Waldensians  and  Bohemian  Brethren  on  the  other. 
He  always  retained  the  respect  of  Luther  and  the  friend- 
ship of  Melanchthon. 

In  his  Augustinianism  Calvin  was  more  moderate  and 
cautious  than  Luther,  and  he  is  not  responsible  for  the 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theologiccd  Symbolics,  pp.  183  aeq. 


130    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

higher  and  more  polemic  Augustinianism  of  his  scholastic 
successors.  Beza,  rather  than  Calvin,  is  the  real  father 
of  scholastic  Calvinism.^  In  the  Eucharistic  contro- 
versy Calvin  as  well  as  Bucer  took  an  intermediate 
position,  which  was  adopted  by  all  the  Reformed 
Churches  and  the  Church  of  England.^  He  was  associated 
with  Bullinger  in  the  preparation  of  the  Zurich  Con- 
sensus (1549),  and  composed  the  Gallican  Confession 
(1559)  with  the  help  of  his  pupil  Chandieu.  He  also 
drew  up  the  Consensus  Genevensis,  and  published  three 
catechisms  (1537,  1542,  1545).  His  works  on  the  worship 
and  government  of  the  Church  were  of  fundamental 
importance.  He  also  produced  many  polemic  and 
apologetic  treatises,  and  an  extraordinary  number  of 
letters  and  sermons.  He  was  the  greatest  exegete  of 
the  Reformation,  and  remarkable  for  his  insistence  upon 
the  activity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  connection  with  the 
Scriptures.     He  declared  : 

'  As  God  alone  is  a  sufficient  witness  of  Himself  in  His  own 
Word,  so  also  the  Word  will  never  gain  credit  in  the  hearts  of 
men  till  it  be  confirmed  by  the  internal  testimony  of  the  Spirit. 
It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  the  same  Spirit,  who  spake  by 
the  mouths  of  the  prophets,  should  penetrate  into  our  hearts 
to  convince  us  that  they  faithfully  dehvered  the  oracles  which 
were  divinely  entrusted  to  them.'  ^ 

Arminius  (f  1609)  wrote  of  Calvin  :  '  Next  to  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  which  I  earnestly  inculcate,  I  exhort  my  pupils  to 
peruse  Calvin's  Cotnmentaries.  ...  I  affirm  that  he  excels 
beyond  comparison  in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  and  that 
his  commentaries  ought  to  be  more  highly  valued  than  all  that  is 
handed  down  to  us  by  the  library  of  the  Fathers ;  so  that  I 
acknowledge  him  to  have  possessed  above  most  others,  or  rather 
above  all  other  men,  what  may  be  called  an  eminent  spirit  of 
prophecy.'  Hooker  (f  1600)  declared  that  Calvin  held  among 
the  preachers  of  the  Reformed  Churches  the  same  place  that  the 
Master  of  Sentences  held  in  the  Church  of  Rome ;    and  Bishop 


1  Vide  Briggs,  Theolngical  Symbolics,  pp.  183  seq.,  209,  282  seq. 

2  Vide.  Briggs,  Church  Unity,  p.  269. 

3  Calvin,  Institutes^  i.  7  ;  vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  142. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  131 

Hall  reckoned  him  '  among  the  best  interpreters  of  Scripture 
since  the  Apostles  left  the  earth.' 

Many  since  his  time  have  cried  with  Scaliger  (f  1609) :  Solus 
inter  theologos  Calvinus.^ 

5.  Theodore  Beza  (1519-1605)  succeeded  Calvin  at 
Geneva,  and  was  in  some  respects  a  more  dominating 
personality.  He  also  was  a  Frenchman,  son  of  the  royal 
governor  of  Vezelay,  Burgundy.  He  was  educated  in 
the  classics  at  Paris,  Orleans,  and  Bourges  ;  and  then 
returned  to  Orleans  for  the  study  of  law  (1535-1539). 
He  practised  law  in  Paris  for  a  short  time,  but  was 
more  interested  in  humanistic  studies.  In  1548  he 
went  to  Geneva,  where  he  was  warmly  received  by  Calvin. 
The  following  year  he  became  professor  of  Greek  at  the 
Academy  of  Lausanne,  w^here  he  remained  till  1558, 
when  he  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Geneva.  After 
the  death  of  Calvin  in  1564  he  became  his  successor 
and  the  great  leader  of  the  Reformation  in  the  French 
Cantons,  and  indeed  in  France  and  all  over  the  Reformed 
world.  As  Choisy  says  :  '  The  Protestant  youth  for 
nearly  forty  years  thronged  his  lecture-room  to  hear  his 
theological  lectures,  in  which  he  expounded  the  purest 
Calvinistic  orthodoxy.'  ^  Beza's  influence  upon  the 
Churches  of  Great  Britain  and  Holland  was  very  great. 
His  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  (1565-1604),  en- 
riched by  a  study  of  two  early  texts,  the  Codex  Bezos 
and  the  Codex  Claromontanus,  took  the  place  of  those  of 
Erasmus  and  Stephens.  His  numerous  writings  include 
important  Biblical,  doctrinal,  and  historical  works,  and  a 
treatise  De  theologo  sive  de  ratione  studii  theologici  (1556). 

9.  Theological  study  was  'promoted  in  Great  Britain  by 
Tyndale,  Cranmer,  Knox,  and  their  fellow-reformers. 

Among  the  scholars  of  Cambridge  to  welcome  Erasmus' 
Greek  Testament  was :  1.  William  Tyndale,  a  pupil  of 

1  For  these  and  many  other  tributes,  vide  SchafF,  vii.  pp.  272  seq. 

2  Choisy,  *  Beza,'  in  ^ew  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia, 


132    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  il 

Colet  (1484-1536).  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures  in  their  original  tongues,  and  to  their 
translation  into  the  vernacular.  Prevented  from  pub- 
lishing his  work  in  England,  he  laboured  for  over  ten 
years  on  the  Continent,  and  produced  English  versions 
of  the  New  Testament  (1524-1526),  and  of  the  Pentateuch 
(1530),  Jonah  (1531),  Joshua,  Judges,  Puth,  and  the 
Books  of  Samuel,  Kings  and  1  Chronicles.  These  trans- 
lations were  all  made  on  the  basis  of  the  original  Greek 
and  Hebrew  texts.  John  Rogers  (f  1555),  a  friend  of 
Tyndale,  incorporated  these  versions  in  the  Bible 
which  he  published  in  1537  under  the  name  of  Matthew's 
Bible,  using  for  the  remaining  books  the  version  of 
Miles  Cover  dale  (f  1568),  '  out  of  Douche  and  Latyn ' 
(1535).  TjTidale  wrote  commentaries  on  1  John  and 
Matthew  v.-vii.,  a  celebrated  Prologue  to  Jonah,  one 
to  the  New  Testament,  afterwards  printed  as  A  Pathway 
into  the  Holy  Scripture,  and  tracts,  including  the 
Practyse  of  Prelates  and  the  Obedience  of  a  Christian  Man. 
Tyndale  carried  on  the  movement  begun  by  Wyclif, 
which  emphasised  the  most  far-reaching  of  the  principles 
of  the  Reformation,  the  Word  of  God  as  a  means  of  grace. 
The  British  Reformation  from  the  beginning  laid  stress 
upon  this  principle,  and  in  the  British  churches  it  received 
its  fullest  statement  and  development.^  Tyndale  died 
a  martyr,  praying,  '  Lord,  open  the  King  of  England's 
eyes.'  That  very  year  (1536)  a  Proclamation  for  Uni- 
formity in  Religion  informed  '  the  loving  subjects  '  of 
Henry  viii.  that  he  was  pleased  that  they  should  have 
the  Scriptures  in  English,  and  '  read  the  same  in  con- 
venient places  and  times.'  Injunctions  further  directed 
that '  a  Bible  of  the  largest  volume  in  English  '  be  placed 
in  every  church.^ 

1  Vide  Briggs,  American  Presbyterianism,  pp.  28  seq.  ;  Study  of  Holy 
Scripture,  p.  653. 

2  Vide  Proctor  and  Frere,  The  Book  of  C'^mmon  Prayer,  pp.  29  seq. 


m.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  133 

2.  Thomas  Cranmer  (1489-1556)  was  trained  at 
Cambridge,  and  undertook  a  systematic  study  of  the 
Bible.  As  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1533)  he  conducted 
various  projects  of  reform,  including  the  publication  of 
the  Scriptures  in  several  English  versions,  that  of 
catechisms  and  articles  of  faith,  and  a  revision  of  the 
worship,  order  and  government  of  the  Church.^  The 
Reformation  was  advanced  by  Cranmer  in  the  English 
universities.  On  Edward's  accession  (1547)  he  sent  to 
the  continent  and  secured  the  help  of  such  teachers  as 
Bucer,  Fagius,  Vermigli,  Occhino,  and  John  a  Lasco. 
Bucer  and  Fagius  were  made  professors  at  Cambridge, 
Vermigli  at  Oxford;  Occhino  and  a  Lasco  became 
influential  in  London.  In  1549  a  reform  of  the  uni- 
versities was  undertaken  by  royal  commission.  Cranmer 
conducted  the  reform  of  the  Church  in  a  gradual  and 
conservative  way,  yet  he  followed  Rogers,  Ridley,  and 
Latimer  to  the  stake,  atoning  by  a  bearing  of  singular 
heroism  for  the  retractions  which  his  enemies  had 
impelled  him  to  make. 

Among  the  theological  scholars  of  England  may  also  be  men- 
tioned :  3.  Matthew  Parker  (|  1575),  the  father  of  the  episcopate 
of  the  Anglican  Church,  who  took  a  leading  part  in  the  revision 
of  the  Articles  of  Religion  and  the  preparation  of  the  Bishops' 
Bible,  and  enriched  the  University  of  Cambridge  with  a  priceless 
collection  of  ancient  manuscripts  ;  4.  John  Foxe  (f  1587),  the 
friend  of  Tyndale  and  Latimer,  and  author  of  the  celebrated  Book 
of  Martyrs  (Latin,  1559  ;  English,  1563) ;  5.  Richard  Hooker 
(t  1600),  whose  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Polity  made  him  the  chief 
Anglican  authority  on  the  Church. 

6.  Patrick  Hamilton  (c.  1503-1528),  the  '  iBrst  apostle  '  of  the 
Reformation  in  Scotland,  studied  at  the  universities  of  Paris, 
Louvain,  St.  Andrews  and  Marburg,  and  was  influenced  by  both 
Erasmus  and  Tyndale.  Returning  to  Scotland  in  1527,  he 
began  his  short  career  as  a  preacher  of  reform,  '  on  fire  witli  zeal 
to  confess  the  name  of  Christ.'  ^     The  substance  of  his  teaching 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  p.  191. 

2  Exegeseos  Francinci  Lambcrti  in  Joannis  Apocalypsim  lib.  vii.  ;  vid6 
Lorimer,  Precursors  of  Knox,  pp.  157,  240. 


134    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

is  preoerved  in  Patrick^s  Places,  which  extol  faith,  and  contrast 
the  Law  and  the  Gospel :  '  The  Law  showeth  us  our  sin  ;  the 
Gospel  showeth  us  remedy  for  it.'  ^  Hamilton  had  '  a  great 
following,'  and  was  called  to  give  account  of  his  teaching  in  a 
conference  at  St.  Andrews.  For  some  weeks  he  held  in  his  own 
defence  '  public  disputations  and  private  interviews,'  and  so 
became  '  the  teacher  of  many  of  the  present  and  future  teachers 
of  the  country,'  ^  including  the  faculty  and  students  of  the  uni- 
versity, as  well  as  many  of  the  clergy,  ecclesiastical  lawyers,  and 
members  of  religious  orders.  His  martyrdom  in  1528  roused 
much  excitement.  In  the  words  of  John  Knox  :  '  Then  within 
St.  Andrews,  yea,  almost  within  the  whole  realm,  there  was  none 
found  who  began  not  to  inquire.  Wherefore  was  Master  Patrick 
Hamilton  burnt  ?  And  when  his  articles  were  rehearsed,  question 
was  holden  if  such  articles  were  necessary  to  be  believed  under 
the  pain  of  damnation.  And  so  within  short  space  many  began 
to  caU  in  doubt  that  which  before  they  held  for  a  certain  verity.'  * 

7.  John  Knox  (c.  1514-1572)  was  educated  at  Had- 
dington and  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  became  a 
priest,  but  engaged  for  a  time  in  private  teaching.  His 
conversion  to  Protestantism  he  owed  chiefly  to  George 
Wishart,  a  pupil  of  Calvin,  whose  martyrdom  (1546)  he 
would  gladly  have  shared.  But  Wishart  refused  his 
consent,  saying  :  '  Nay,  return  to  your  bairns.  One 
is  sufficient  for  a  sacrifice.'  The  following  year  Knox 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  forced  to  serve  in  the  French 
galleys.  On  his  release  in  1549  he  began  to  preach 
in  England  ;  but  the  death  of  Edward  vi.  drove  him  to 
the  Continent.  Taking  refuge  in  Geneva,  he  studied 
with  Calvin,  and  after  a  short  pastorate  in  Frankfort, 
settled  in  Geneva  as  pastor  of  the  English  congregation. 
In  1559  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  became  the 
triumphant  leader  of  the  Reformation  in  that  country. 
He  was  the  chief  of  the  six  divines  who  drew  up  the 
Scottish  Confession  and  the  first  Book  of  Discipline.     His 

1  Lorimer,  Precursors  of  Knox,  pp.  110,  112. 

*  Lorimer,  ibid.,  pp.  134  seq. 

*  Knox,  History  of  the  Reformation,  i.  p.  36  ;  vide  Lonmei,  Precursor* 
qf  Knox,  p.  156. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  136 

writings  include  a  History  of  the  Reformation.  At  his 
death  he  was  mourned  as  '  the  lycht  of  Scotland,  the 
comfort  of  the  Kirke  "vvithin  the  same,  the  mirrour  of 
Godliness  and  patrone  and  exemple  to  all  trew  ministeris ' ; 
and  as  one  who  '  never  feared  the  face  of  man.'  ^ 

10.  Ignatius  and  his  associates  organised  the  Jesuit 
system  of  education^  which  has  'predominated  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  until  the  present  time. 

1.  Ignatius  of  Loyola  (c.  1491-1556),  a  Spanish  officer, 
wounded  in  an  engagement  at  Pampeluna  in  1521,  was 
called  to  a  religious  life.  He  undertook  severe  religious 
discipline,  and  in  1524  began  a  long  course  of  study  at 
Barcelona,  Alcala,  Salamanca,  and  finally  at  Paris 
(1528-1535).  He  won  as  his  associates,  Faber,  Xavier, 
Lainez,  and  others  ;  and  founded  the  Order  of  the  Fathers 
of  Jesus,  organised  by  mutual  vows  in  1534,  and  by 
papal  bull  in  1540.  The  chief  aim  of  the  order  was 
missions  to  the  heathen  and  to  heretics.  The  methods 
were  :  pastoral  care,  preaching,  and  religious  education. 
To  give  training  in  these  was  their  main  purpose.  The 
colleges  which  they  established,  wherever  they  could 
get  a  foothold,  became  the  chief  seats  of  theological 
education  for  two  centuries. 

2.  Peter  Faber  (f  1546)  began  his  work  in  Western  Germany  at 
Speyer,  Mainz  and  elsewhere,  removed  subsequently  to  Cologne 
(1543-1544),  and  with  the  help  of  his  companions  won  the  lower 
Rhine  and  WestphaUa  back  to  the  Roman  Church. 

3.  Peter  Canisius  (f  1597)  entered  the  Jesuit  order  under  the 
influence  of  Faber.  He  laboured  at  Cologne,  Ingolstadt,  Vienna, 
Dillingen,  Prague,  and  other  towns,  teaching,  preaching  and 
building  up  Collegia.  He  and  his  associates  won  Bavaria, 
Austria  and  Bohemia  back  from  Protestantism.  His  Catechisms 
were  widely  influential.  The  Summa  doctrinoe  christiance  per 
qucBstiones  tradita  (1556)  'remained  for  about  two  centuries  the 
principal  catechism  of  the  Roman  Cathohc  Church.'  ^ 

1  Vide  Lee,  '  Knox,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 

2  Cohrs,  '  Catechisms,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 


136    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

The  Jesuits  established  in  Rome  the  Collegium  Roma- 
num  (c.  1550)  and  the  Collegium  Germanicum  (1552), 
which  became  the  great  theological  institutions  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  so  remained  for  centuries. 

The  founders  of  the  Jesuit  Order  in  their  Ratio  Studiorum  com- 
bined the  old  learning  with  the  new  in  more  harmonious  propor- 
tions and  in  better  adjustments  than  did  Melanchthon,  Calvin, 
Ximenes  or  Eck,  from  whom,  however,  they  learned  much. 
The  Scholastic  Theology  was  reformed  by  falling  back  from  the 
later  corrupt,  hair-splitting  Scholasticism  to  the  Scholastic 
Theology  of  Thomas  Aquinas  ;  and  on  him  was  built  a  newer 
and,  for  a  time,  a  sounder  Scholastic  Theology  than  the  Church 
had  known  for  centuries.  At  the  same  time  there  was  a  great 
revival  of  Biblical  and  Patristic  studies,  and,  indeed,  in  the  original 
languages.  WMle  the  Jesuit  theologians  carried  this  reforma- 
tion through  to  success,  it  must  be  said  that  they  built  upon  the 
reformed  Scholasticism  and  Biblical  study  that  had  already 
begun  in  Alcaic  under  Ximenes'  influence,  at  Lou  vain  and  at 
Ingolstadt.'^ 

The  Jesuits  also  united  the  theoretical  and  the  practical  in 
theology  as  these  had  never  been  united  before ;  and  while, 
for  two  centuries,  they  trained  the  best  scholars  of  Europe,  they 
also  trained  the  best  preachers,  pastors,  teachers  and  mission- 
aries. They  built  on  the  ancient  method  of  three  gradations  of 
study.  The  original  constitution  of  the  Jesuit  Order  distinguishes 
the  three  grades  :  the  grammatico-rhetorical,  the  fhilosophical, 
and  the  theological ;  and  sums  up  the  whole  as  :  '  Litterce  Humani- 
ores  diversarum  linguarum,  Logica,  naturalis  ac  moralis  Philo- 
Sophia,  Metaphysica  et  Theologia,  tarn  quce  Scholastica  quam  quae 
Posiiiva  dicitur,  et  sacra  Scriptura.^  ^ 

The  training  prescribed  in  the  German  college  at  Rome,  as 
reorganised  in  1573,  was  a  course  of  ten  years  in  philosophy  and 
theology.  The  grammatical  and  rhetorical  schooling  was  pre- 
supposed. Students  were  not  received,  unless  properly  qualified 
and  specially  recommended  for  real  ability,  and  who  were  at 
least  twenty  years  of  age.  They  were  placed  for  six  months  on 
probation,  and  then  were  required  to  take  the  vow  for  the  minis- 
terial life,  or  else  retire  from  the  college.  The  course  of  study 
extended  over  ten  years,  three  for  philosophy  and  the  higher 

1  Vide  pp.  125  f. 

2  Cap.  V.  ;  vide  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unierrichts,  i. 
p.  381. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORIvlATlON  137 

sciences,  four  for  Scholastic  Theology,  and  three  for  Moral 
Theology.  Almost  all  the  great  Catholic  scholars  of  Germany 
were  trained  here  for  many  generations.  The  training  given  for 
those  who  were  to  advance  in  the  Jesuit  Order  was  much  more 
severe  and  prolonged.  A  novice,  who  entered  the  order  at  the 
age  of  sixteen  or  eighteen,  must  spend  two  years  in  quiet  religious 
hfe  before  the  first  vow  was  taken  and  the  Scholasticus  began  his 
career  as  a  scholar.  If  he  had  had  the  required  training  in 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  he  might  enter  at  once  upon  a  three  years' 
course  of  logic,  physics  and  metaphysics  ;  if  not,  he  was  obliged 
to  take  the  preparatory  studies  first.  He  was  then  required  to 
serve  for  some  years  as  a  tutor  in  the  studies  already  acquired. 
He  might  be  required  to  remain  in  this  position  all  his  life.  If 
he  was  deemed  qualified  to  go  on  into  the  study  of  theology,  he 
entered  upon  a  four  years'  course,  after  the  completion  of  which 
he  must  be  a  tutor  in  theology  for  two  years  more,  or  else  take 
special  training  as  preacher  and  pastor.  The  Jesuits  in  all  their 
instruction,  from  the  rhetorical  schools  upward,  laid  great  stress 
upon  practical  discipline  in  writing  and  in  speaking,  both  by 
declamation  and  by  debate.  Their  students  were  made,  there- 
fore, ready,  graceful  speakers,  easy  and  powerful  writers,  and  also 
adroit  and  attractive  members  of  society.  They  were  disciplined 
by  frequent  confessions,  in  which  not  only  mortal  sins,  but  the 
most  secret  and  delicate  sins  and  motions  to  sin,  and  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  inner  life,  were  exposed  to  the  confessor  ;  so 
that  they  had  practical  as  well  as  theoretical  training  in  the  whole 
range  of  moral  theology  and  casuistry.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
such  discipline  in  scholarship  and  in  its  practical  use  made  them 
the  most  adroit  and  able  scholars  of  Europe  in  the  late  sixteenth 
and  the  seventeenth  centuries. 

The  entire  reforming  influence  of  the  Roman  Church 
gathered  about  the  Jesuits.  Ignatius  had  as  his  ad- 
visers and  strong  helpers  not  only  all  the  popes  of  his 
generation,  but  also  the  most  able  of  the  cardinals  and 
the  most  capable  scholars. 

Among  the  theologians  in  the  Jesuit  Order  may  be  mentioned  : 
4.  Maldonatus  of  the  University  of  Salamanca  (f  1583),  who 
taught  at  Paris,  Bourges  and  Rome  with  extraordinary  success, 
and  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Prophets  and  the  Gospels  ;  5. 
Toletus  (t  1596),  the  first  cardinal  of  the  order,  eminent  as  an 
exegete,  and  one  of  the  foremost  in  a  long  series  of  celebrated 


138    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

casuists  ;  and  6.  Vasquez  (tl604),  one  of  the  chief  Roman  Catholic 
divines  of  the  sixteenth  century/  the  author  of  notable  works  in 
Moral  and  Polemic  Theology. 

11.  The  Council  of  Trent  advised  the  organisation  of 
diocesan  seminaries  for  the  religious  training  of  students, 
especially  for  the  'priesthood.  Under  the  influence  of 
Borromeo,  Pole  and  others,  these  were  established  with 
great  success,  and  were  called  Tridentine  Seminaries. 

Two  cardinals  may  be  mentioned  especially  in  con- 
nection with  this  work,  namely  :  Reginald  Pole  (1500- 
1558)  of  England,  and  Carlo  Borromeo  (1538-1584)  of 
Milan.  These  were  in  hearty  sjmapathy  with  the  edu- 
cational reforms  of  Ignatius  and  his  associates  ;  between 
them  the  plan  of  the  theological  seminary  was  devised, 
and  was  ordered  by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1563. 

The  popes  and  the  bishops  now  vied  with  one  another 
in  the  establishment  of  diocesan  seminaries  for  the 
training  of  the  clergy.  These  were  given  into  the  hands 
of  the  Jesuits  chiefly  ;  but  the  other  orders,  old  as  well 
as  new,  rallied  about  the  plan.  The  older  monastic 
schools  revived  ;  and  the  friars  and  newer  orders  also, 
on  their  part,  shared  in  a  measure  in  this  educational 
reform.  The  result  was  the  forcing  back  of  Protestant- 
ism all  along  the  line.  It  was  not  so  much  religious 
persecution  and  the  force  of  arms  that  stayed  the  pro- 
gress of  Protestantism  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  reconquered  for  Rome  in  that  period,  and 
still  more  in  the  seventeenth  century,  so  large  a  part  of 
the  original  strongholds  of  Protestantism.  Persecution 
does  not  usually  succeed  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  Protestants 
were  as  zealous  persecutors  as  the  Roman  Catholics, 
and  even  more  prompt  than  the  Catholics  for  religious 
warfare.  It  was  a  superior  religious  education,  not  only 
of  scholars,  but  of  priests,  secular  as  well  as  regular,  that 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Church  Unity,  p.  280. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  139 

gave  the  Roman  Catholics  a  succession  of  victories  for 
more  than  a  century. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  work  of  Faber  and  his 
associates  at  Mainz,  Cologne,  and  the  whole  lower  Rhine  and 
Westphaha  ;  and  that  of  Canisius  and  his  associates  in  Southern 
Germany,  Austria,  and  Bohemia.  In  Poland  the  work  of  Hoshis 
(t  1579),  begun  in  his  college  at  Braunsberg  (1565-1568),  won 
back  Poland  from  Protestantism,  and  for  a  while  imperilled  the 
Reformation  in  Sweden.  In  the  north  of  Italy  and  in  Switzer- 
land Carlo  Borromeo  (f  1584)  estabhshed  seminaries  and  schools, 
and  even  Sunday-schools,  for  children  and  adults,  and  destroyed 
Protestantism  thereby  in  Northern  Italy  and  several  of  the 
Cantons  of  Switzerland.  The  Protestantism  of  the  Engadine 
was  at  one  time  well-nigh  overthrown.  Francois  de  Sales  (f  1622), 
bishop  of  Geneva,^  worked  powerfully  in  Savoy  and  French 
Switzerland ;  and  even  Geneva  was  in  grave  peril  from  the 
Catholic  reaction. 

The  battle  in  France  was  a  longer  one.  The  Cathohc  Church 
in  France  was  long  under  the  control  of  the  Galhcan  spirit,  which 
was  nationahstic  in  character,  and  really  put  the  Church  under 
the  domination  of  the  king  rather  than  the  pope,  and  kept  the 
clergy  in  constant  trouble  by  the  conflict  of  the  two  jurisdictions. 
The  University  of  Paris  insisted  upon  its  own  historic  privileges 
as  the  dictator  of  theology,  and  resisted  the  Jesuits  and  the 
Tridentine  Seminaries  with  all  their  influences.  This  undoubtedly 
hampered  the  Cathohc  reform  in  France.  It  was  not  until 
Louis  XIV.  came  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  and  gave  his 
authority  and  great  power  to  the  establishment  of  diocesan 
seminaries,  that  the  intellectual  strength  of  the  Cathohc  reaction 
began  to  tell  upon  the  French  Protestants.  Undoubtedly  the 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685),  and  the  severe  perse- 
cution that  followed,  had  much  to  do  -w^th  the  overthrow  of 
Protestantism  in  France ;  but  not  so  much  as  the  Tridentine 
Seminaries,  and  a  better  educated  Catholic  clergy,  and  Catholic 
scholars,  who  succeeded  by  their  superior  theological  abihty 
in  persuading  multitudes  of  Protestants  to  return  to  the  Mother 
Church.  It  is  easy  to  attribute  such  cases  to  fear  and  self- 
interest  ;  but  in  a  multitude  of  instances  such  motives  do  not 
really  explain  the  situation.  The  Jesuits  in  the  seventeenth 
century  had  the  potent  help  of  the  new  foundation  of  the 
Oratorians  (1575),  the  institution  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (1631), 

1  Vide  p.  151. 
VOL.  II.  K 


140    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

and    the    Sulpicians    (1642),    the    great    educators    of    modern 
France. 

It  may  be  interesting  here  to  note  the  rules  of  Cardinal  Allen 
for  the  Seminary  at  Douai,  in  which  priests  were  trained  for  the 
Enghsh  mission.  These  rules  of  the  year  1580  make  the  study 
of  the  Bible  of  fundamental  importance,  and  require  Greek  and 
Hebrew  that  the  students  may  understand  the  Scriptures,  in 
the  original  texts.  Church  History  was  to  be  studied  privately  ; 
also  important  patristic  works,  especially  Bede's,  '  that  it  may 
be  seen  that  the  ancient  Faith  was  CathoUc'  The  Summa  of 
Thomas  was  to  be  taught  by  lecture  and  disputation.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Council  of  Trent  and  the  Roman  Catechism  were 
to  be  studied  privately.  Morals  and  cases  of  conscience  were  to 
be  discussed  publicly.  Great  stress  was  laid  upon  practical 
studies,  including  Catechetics,  Liturgies  and  Pastoral  Theology. 
Four  pubUc  exercises  were  required  each  week  for  drill  in  public 
speaking,  comprising  one  practical  and  two  doctrinal  sermons, 
and  one  disputation  on  controverted  questions  of  theology.^ 
There  was  no  such  drill  in  any  Protestant  school  of  theological 
education. 

12.  The  Greek  Church  was  compelled  to  consider  the 
questions  raised  by  the  Reformation  of  the  Western  Church, 
Her  "position  was  defined  by  her  theologians  in  three  symbols. 
An  abortive  attempt  at  reform,  led  by  Cyril  Lucar,  was 
productive  in  the  field  of  theological  scholarship. 

At  the  Reformation  both  Romanists  and  Protestants 
strove  to  win  the  support  of  the  Greek  Church,  which 
eventually  defined  its  position  in  three  symbols  :  (1) 
The  Answer  of  Jeremiah,  (2)  The  Confession  of  Mogilas, 
and  (3)  The  Confession  of  Dositheus.  A  movement 
toward  reform  was  led  by  Cyril  Lucar,  a  theologian  of 
European  reputation,  who  sought  to  introduce  into  the 
Greek  Church  certain  of  the  characteristic  doctrines  of 
Calvinism. 2 

1.  Jeremiah,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  (f  1595),  wrote  in 
1576  an  answer  to  communications  from  the  Lutheran  theo- 

1   Vide  Siebenpartner,  Schrifttn  und  Einrichtungen  zur  Bildung  der 
Ge'stlichen,  pp.  119  seq. 
■'  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  200  seg. 


CH.  n.]  THE  REFORMATION  '  141 

logians  AndrecB  and  Crusiu-^,  which  was  approved  by  the  Sjnnod 
of  Jerusalem  in  1672.  All  of  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation  were  rejected  with  the  exception  of  the 
institutional  matters  of  communion  in  both  kinds  and  the 
marriage  of  priests. 

2.  Petrus  Mogilas  (f  1647),  metropolitan  of  Kieff,  and  father 
of  Russian  orthodoxy,  was  trained  in  the  University  of  Paris, 
and  chosen  by  Cyril  Lucar  as  exarch  of  his  see.  Mogilas  pub- 
lished editions  of  the  Fathers  and  several  Service  Books,  and  is 
an  example  of  the  great  learning  to  be  found  among  Russian 
ecclesiastics.^  His  Confession  of  Faith,  written  in  the  form  of 
a  Catechism,  was  revised  and  adopted  by  a  provincial  synod  at 
Kieff  (1640),  and  again  by  a  synod  of  Greeks  and  Russians  at 
Jassy  (1643),  under  the  influence  of  Meletius  Syriga,  metropolitan 
of  Nice,  and  was  signed  by  the  four  eastern  patriarchs.  It  thus 
became  the  symbol  of  the  entire  Russo-Greek  Church.  It 
defines  the  faith  of  the  Greek  Church  against  Protestantism  on 
the  one  hand  and  Romanism  on  the  other,  and  is  especially 
directed  against  Cyril  Lucar. 

3.  Dositheits,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  (1699-1707),  is  called  by 
Meyer  '  one  of  the  most  important  figures  of  the  modern  Greek 
Church.'  His  great  work  on  the  history  of  the  patriarchs  of 
Jerusalem  (1715)  is  'the  Greek  counterpart  to  the  Annals  of 
Baronius  and  the  Magdeburg  Centuries.'  ^  The  Confession  of 
Dositheus  was  adopted  by  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem  (1672),  and 
afterwards  signed  by  sixty- eight  bishops  of  the  Greek  and  Russian 
Churches.  It  is  less  complete  and  more  polemic  than  the  Con- 
fession of  Mogilas,  but  the  doctrinal  position  is  the  same. 

4.  Cyril  Lucar  (1572-163S).  '  the  one  brilliant  star  of  his  age  '  ^ 
in  the  East,  was  born  in  Crete,  and  studied  at  Alexandria,  Venice 
and  Padua.  He  came  under  the  influence  of  Maximos  Mar- 
gunios,  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  reunion  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Churches,  and  of  several  of  the  Protestant  theologians. 
In  1602  he  was  made  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and,  though 
banished  five  times,  was  as  often  recalled.  Finally  he  was  chosen 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  (1620),  and  this  position  gave  great 
importance  to  the  publication  of  his  Confession  of  Faith  (Latin, 
1629  ;  Greek,  1633).  It  was  condemned,  however,  by  several 
provincial  synods.  According  to  Cyril,  '  The  authority  of  Holy 
Scripture  is  far  greater  than  that  of  the  Church  ;  for  it  is  a 

1  Vide  Adeney,  The  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches,  pp.  411  seq, 
'  Meyer,  'Dositheus,'  in  Neio  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclcipedia. 
'  Adeney,  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches,  p.  320. 


142    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

different  thing  to  be  taught  by  the  Holy  Spirit  from  being  taught 
by  man.  Man  may  through  ignorance  err  and  deceive,  and  be 
deceived.  But  the  Holy  Spirit  neither  deceiveth,  nor  is  deceived, 
nor  is  subject  to  error,  but  is  infaUible.'  ^  Cjrril  undertook  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular.  It  was  he  who 
presented  to  Charles  i.  of  England  the  great  Codex  Alexandrimis. 
Through  his  recommendation  the  brilliant  Metrophanes  Crito- 
pulus  received  his  training  at  Oxford.  Among  Cyril's  numerous 
followers  were  Karyophylles,  the  noted  Calvinist,  Konopios, 
translator  of  Calvin's  Institutes,  and  Kalliupolites,  translator  of 
the  Scriptures.  Cornelius  Haga,  Dutch  ambassador  to  the 
Porte,  declared  in  1632  that  there  was  no  one  among  the  many 
metropolitans  then  at  Constantinople  who  was  not  prepared  to 
sacrifice  '  his  person,  his  Hfe  and  his  goods  for  the  defence  of  the 
patriarch  and  his  Confession.'  ^  Yet  the  bitter  enmity  of  the 
Jesuits  finally  secured  his  death  by  order  of  the  sultan  on  a 
false  charge  of  treason. 

1  Vide  Adeney,  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches,  p.  318. 

2  Vide  Gieseler,  v.  p.  134,  n,  34. 


CH.m.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGIITEE^^TH  CENTURIES    143 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY   IN   THE   SEVENTEENTH 
AND   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURIES 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  Reformation  was, 
to  a  great  extent,  a  reform  of  education  and  a  revival 
of  theology.  But  in  the  Protestant  world  there  was  a 
serious  decline  in  theological  education,  although  there 
were  revivals  here  and  there,  especially  among  the 
Calixtines  of  Germany  and  the  Puritans  of  England. 
The  successors  of  the  Reformers  reverted  to  the  scholastic 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  ;  and  Protestant  Scholasticism 
became  as  barren,  hopeless,  and  irreformable  as  the 
Mediaeval.  There  was  the  same  incessant  strife  of  schools 
and  parties  over  merely  theoretic  questions  of  theology. 
This  is  the  period  of  the  Formula  of  Concord  (1576),  the 
Synod  of  Dort  (1619),  and  the  Zurich  Consensus  (1549), 
and  of  the  ecclesiasticism  of  Laud  (t  1645),  but  also  of 
the  retreat  of  Protestantism  all  along  the  line. 

The  universities  of  Germany  sank  so  low  that  their  situation 
seemed  hopeless.^  Even  Leibnitz  (f  1716),  the  greatest  scholar 
of  his  time,  did  not  think  of  the  revival  of  learning  in  con- 
nection with  universities,  but  through  the  association  of  scholars 
apart  from  universities.  He  thought  travel  and  intercourse 
with  learned  men  and  men  of  affairs  of  much  more  importance 
than  a  university  education  ;  and  so  they  were  in  his  day. 
English  historians  do  not  give  adequate  consideration  to  the  peril 


1  Vide  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  UnUrrichts  auf  den  deutschen 
Schulen  und  Universitdten,  '^^'^^^  i.  pp.  495  seq.,  511  seq.  ;  Germun 
Universities,  p.  55;  Ddllingsr,  Universities  Past  and  Present,  pp.  11 
seq.,  14. 


144    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

of  Protestantism  in  the  sixteenth,  and  especially  in  the  second 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  from  a  theological  point  of  view. 
The  people  of  England  realised  it,  as  shown  by  the  Guy  Fawkes 
scare  ;  and  '  no  popery  '  was  branded  into  the  very  blood  of  the 
English  people,  and  is  there  to-day.  The  clergy,  Anglican  and 
Nonconformist  alike,  realised  it  at  the  time  ;  and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  bitter  conflicts  in  which  they  were  engaged,  they  combined 
to  save  themselves  from  the  greater  evil  of  Rome  by  the  British 
Revolution.  I  know  of  no  more  desperate  literary  battle,  none 
more  severe,  comprehensive,  and  thorough,  than  that  waged 
from  1687  to  1689  between  Catholic  and  Protestant  writers  in 
England.  If  James  n.  had  been  an  abler  man  and  a  wiser  poli- 
tician, it  is  quite  possible  that  he  might  have  become  the  Louis 
XIV.  of  England,  and  English  Protestantism  might  have  shared 
the  fate  of  the  French.  Now  it  was  the  priests  trained  in  the 
English  Catholic  seminary  at  Douai,  France  {transferred  for  a 
time  to  Rheims),  at  the  English  Seminary  in  Rome,  and  those  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  that  carried  on  this  theological  battle  against 
the  best  scholars  of  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Noncon- 
formists ;  and  from  the  scholar's  point  of  view  it  cannot  be  said 
that  the  Protestant  scholars  had  always  the  best  of  the  argument. 
It  was  the  sturdy  Protestantism  of  Sweden  that  saved  Protestant- 
ism in  Northern  Germany,  and  the  sturdy  Protestantism  of 
Holland  and  Scotland  that  saved  England,  and  that  by  success 
in  war  rather  than  by  superiority  in  theological  scholarship. 

In  the  third  quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Counter-Reformation  was  triumphant.  In  the  last 
quarter  of  the  century  Protestantism  organised  a  more 
sturdy  and  effectual  resistance.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
Protestantism  began  to  gain  ground,  and  continued  to 
do  so  all  through  the  century.  This  was  due  to  several 
influences,  but,  from  the  point  of  view  of  theological 
study,  largely  to  the  decline  in  efficiency  of  Roman 
Catholic  education.  The  Jesuit  Order  had  become 
wealthy  and  haughty,  self-seeking  and  possessed  of  the 
evil  spirits  of  domination  and  falsehood.  This  made 
them  hated  by  the  secular  clergy  and  the  regulars  of  the 
other  orders.  Their  strife  for  wealth  and  political  power 
made  them  a  peril  in  civil  politics,  and  gradually  pro- 
duced the  universal  feeling  that  they  were  a  political 


CH.  m.]   SEVENTEEXTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    145 

menace.  This  brought  about  the  banishment  of  the 
order  from  many  countries,  and  at  last  its  temporary 
abolition  by  the  pope  (1773).  The  worldly  spirit  of  the 
order  suppressed  the  religious  and  the  intellectual  spirit ; 
and  the  ability  of  its  members  in  theological  scholarship 
became  weakened.  Furthermore,  the  Jesuits  refused  to 
adapt  themselves  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  persisted 
in  their  ultra-conservative  adherence  to  the  older 
methods.  Their  Scholastic  Theology  had  become  per- 
verted into  a  newer  Scholasticism  that  was  worse  in 
some  respects,  especially  on  the  ethical  side,  than  the 
corrupt  Scholasticism  that  preceded  the  Reformation. 
The  society  thought  more  of  making  successful  men  of 
the  world  than  of  making  pious  priests  and  scholarly 
teachers.  The  Ratio  Studiarum  (1599)  was  still  followed 
in  the  Jesuit  schools,  but  in  a  pedantic,  mechanical, 
traditional  way.  Ignatius  had  introduced  the  new 
learning  of  his  age,  and  harmonised  it  with  the  old  ; 
but  the  Jesuits  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  hostile 
to  the  new  learning  of  their  times.  The  order  refused 
the  science  and  philosophy  and  history  which  char- 
acterised the  new  learning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
They  insisted  upon  the  absolute  authority  of  the 
Aristotehan  Philosophy  and  of  the  Scholastic  Theology, 
and  would  allow  no  deviation  from  it. 

In  1730-1731  the  General  Congregation  of  the  Order  decided 
against  the  allowance  of  liberty  of  opinion  in  philosophy,  wliirli 
had  been  requested  by  several  pro\'inces  of  the  order,  and  resolved: 

(1)  Nothing  is  in  contradiction  -with  the  Aristotelian  philo- 
sophy, and  all  the  phenomena  of  nature  must  be  explained  in 
accordance  therewith. 

(2)  The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  must  remain,  according  to  the 
constitution  and  rules  of  the  order,  not  only  for  logic  and  meta- 
physics, but  also  for  physics,  where  the  peripatetic  doctrine  of  the 
nature  and  constitution  of  natural  bodies  must  be  maintained.^ 


1  Pachtler,   Ratio  Studiorum,   i.   104;    vide    Paulsen,    Geschichte  des 
gelehrten  Unterrichts,  ii.  pp.  103  se^. 


146    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

The  Jesuit  schools  were  thus  made  antagonistic  to  the  new 
learning  of  the  eighteenth  century — that  is,  to  natural  science 
and  the  inductive  methods  of  study,  to  the  modern  philosophy 
of  Descartes,  Locke  and  Leibnitz,  as  the  Obscurants  of  Cologne 
had  been  opposed  to  the  new  learning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
They  also  held  fast  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Latin  language  in 
education,  and  resisted  the  growth  of  modern  national  literature. 
In  other  words,  the  Jesuits  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  formal- 
ists and  pedants  ;  they  retained  the  form  of  the  rules  of  Ignatius 
and  the  other  founders  of  the  order,  but  they  had  altogether 
lost  their  spirit. 

Thus  inevitably  theological  education  declined  all  over 
the  Roman  Catholic  world,  as  it  advanced  through  the 
Protestant  world. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  a  bad  century  for  reli- 
gion everywhere.  The  reaction  against  the  Scholastic 
Theology  of  Protestants  and  Catholics  alike  was  so  bitter, 
and  the  determination  to  get  rid  of  its  intolerable 
dogmatism  so  thorough,  that  Deism,  Pantheism,  Atheism 
and  Rationalism  took  the  place  of  the  Christian  religion 
to  a  considerable  portion  of  the  learned  world.  The 
inevitable  result  was  the  French  Revolution,  with  all 
its  serious  consequences  for  education  as  well  as  for 
religion.  It  was  Pietism  which  saved  German  and 
Dutch  Protestantism,  and  Methodism  that  saved 
Anglo-Saxon  Protestantism  from  the  utter  ruin  into 
which  Scholasticism  and  Ecclesiasticism  had  brought  the 
Protestant  Churches. 

1.  France  was  the  centre  of  theological  learning  for  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries ;  and  the  Jesuits^ 
Benedictines,  and  Oratorians  produced  the  greatest  number 
of  eminent  theologians. 

The  Jesuits  became  noted  especially  for  their  work  in 
the  departments  of  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  LaAV. 

Among  the  celebrated  casuists  of  the  order  may  be  mentioned  : 
(1)  Sanchez  (f  1610),  (2)  Suarez  (f  1617),  and  (3)  Cardinal  de  Lugo 


CH.  m.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    147 

(t  1660) ;  among  the  canonists,  (4)  Lahhens  (f  1667),  whose  col- 
lection of  conciliar  decrees  was  completed  by  Cossart ;  and  (5) 
Harduin  (f  1729),  author  of  the  Conciliorum  collectio  regia  maxima. 
The  Bibhcal  scholars  of  the  order  included  the  popular  exegete 
(6)  Cornelius  a  Lapide  (Van  den  Stecn,  f  1637),  whose  commen- 
taries cover  almost  the  whole  Bible ;  and  (7)  Menochius  (f  1655), 
whose  work,  according  to  Kihn,'-  is  too  little  known.  Pre-eminent 
among  the  Jesuits  of  his  day  was  (8)  the  cardinal,  Robert  Bellar- 
mine  (f  1621),  Biblical  exegete,  dogmatic  theologian,  and  author 
of  a  catechism  printed  in  many  languages  and  many  editions, 
of  an  epoch-making  work,  De  scriytorihus  ecclesiasticiSj  and  of 
the  famous  Disputationes  de  coniroversiis  Christiame  fidei.  (9) 
Petavius  (f  1652)  also  brought  honour  to  the  order  by  his  work 
as  Biblical  scholar.  Church  historian  and  dogmatic  theologian. 
He  greatly  promoted  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  Chronology,  and 
won  the  title  of  '  Father  of  the  History  of  Dogma.'  The  most 
notable  work  of  the  Society  in  the  department  of  Church  History 
was  done  by  (10)  Sirm/jTid  (t  1651),  in  his  editions  of  Church 
Writers;  (11)  Maimhourg  (f  1686),  in  his  histories  of  schisms 
from  the  Roman  Church,  both  Greek  and  Protestant ;  and 
(12)  Jan  Bolland  (f  1665),  with  whom  began  the  publication  of 
the  Acta  Sanctorum^  continued  under  his  name  to  the  present 
time.^ 

Among  the  scholars  trained  by  the  Jesuits  may  be  mentioned  : 
(1)  Valesius  (f  1676),  noted  for  his  editions  of  the  early  Church 
historians  ;  (2)  Du  Cange  (f  1688),  who  made  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  study  of  the  IVIiddle  Ages,  and  published  Glossaria 
ad  scriptores  mediae  et  infimce  cetafis,  both  Greek  and  Latin  ;  (3) 
Baluze  (t  1718),  who  carried  on  the  work  of  Labbe  and  Cossart, 
and  published  Capitularia  Regum  Francorum,  and  other  important 
historical  works  ;  (4)  Huetius  (f  1721),  editor  of  Origen's  Com- 
mentaries ;  (5)  Fehronius  (Von  Hontheim,  f  1790),  author  of  the 
famous  treatise  De  statu  ecclesice  et  legitima  potestate  Romani 
Pontificis  ;  (6)  Gerhert  (f  1793),  celebrated  for  his  Monumenta 
veteris  liturgice  AlcmxinniccB  and  his  works  on  sacred  music. 

The  Benedictine  Order  rendered  invaluable  service  to 
Historical  Theology,  especially  through  the  labours  of 

1  Vide  Kihn,  Encyklopiklie  der  Theologie,  p.  253. 

'  The  'Bollandi.sts'  are  still  far  from  the  end  of  their  great  enterprise, 
although  they  have  gone  through  the  calendar  as  far  as  November.  A 
new  edition  of  their  work  has  appeared  in  sixty-six  volumes  (Brussels, 
18CC-1911). 


148    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

the  Congregatio  Sancti  Mauri,  which  numbered  over  one 
hundred  and  eighty  cloisters,  and  had  its  centre  in  Paris, 
at  the  Abbey  Saint  Germain  des  Pres. 

The  most  distinguished  of  the  scholars  of  Saint  Maur  were : 
(1)  D'Achery  (Dacherius,  f  1685),  noted  for  his  Sjncilegium  vete- 
rum  aliquot  scriptorum ;  (2)  Mabillon  (t  1707),  his  collaborator 
and  successor  as  historian  of  the  order,  a  pioneer  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  those  editions  of  the  Fathers  and  Church  Writers  for 
which  his  Congregation  became  famous,  and  author  of  works  of 
exceptional  importance  in  the  departments  of  Church  History 
and  Liturgies,  of  an  epoch-making  work,  De  re  diplomatica  (1681), 
by  which  was  laid  the  foundation  for  Ecclesiastical  Diplomatics,^ 
and  of  a  treatise  in  defence  of  the  study  of  theology  in  monas- 
teries ;  (3)  Ruinart  (f  1709),  celebrated  for  his  Acta  sincera 
primorum  martyrum ;  (4)  Martianay  (f  1717),  who  published  an 
edition  of  Jerome ;  (5)  Ruceus  (De  la  Rue,  f  1736),  editor  of 
Origen's  works ;  (6)  Edmond  Martene  (f  1739),  a  pupil  of  D'Achery 
and  MabiUon,  collaborator  in  several  of  the  great  enterprises  of 
his  Congregation,  and  author  of  monumental  works,  including  a 
collection  of  ancient  ecclesiastical  rites  and  the  famous  Veterum 
scriptorum  et  monumentorum  collectio  amplissima ;  (7)  Mont- 
faucon  (t  1741),  editor  of  Origen's  Hexapla,  and  of  the  works  of 
Chrysostom  and  Athanasius,  whose  many  valuable  contributions 
to  theology  include  a  collection  of  the  Greek  Fathers  and  Church 
Writers ;  (8)  Prudentius  Maranus  (f  1762),  noted  for  his  critical 
editions  of  the  Fathers,  and  for  works  on  the  divinity  of  Christ. 
This  Congregation  also  undertook  the  revision  and  continuation 
of  the  Gallia  Christiana,  and  published  the  celebrated  Histoire 
litteraire  de  la  France,  UArt  de  verifier  les  dates  des  fait  s  historiques, 
and  Le  Nourry's  Apparatus  ad  bibliothecam  maximam  patrum 
veterum.  Among  the  Church  Historians  of  the  Benedictine 
Order  should  be  mentioned :  (9)  the  abbot,  Claude  Fleury 
(1 1723),  whose  Histoire  ecclesiastique  (in  twenty  volumes)  became 
'  almost  a  classic  among  the  French,  and  supplanted  all  other 
works  of  the  kind ' ;  ^  and  (10)  Remy  Ceillier  (f  1761),  famous  for 
his  Histoire  generale  des  auteurs  sacres  et  eccltsiastiques.  The 
Benedictines  could  also  boast  of  possessing  in  (11)  Augustin 
Calmet  (f  1757)  the  most  notable  Biblical  exegete  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

1  Vide  Schmitz-Kallenberg,  '  Die  Lehre  von  den  Papsturkunden,'  in 
Grundriss  der  Geschichtswissenschaft,  i.  p.  174, 

2  Gieseler,  v.  p.  240. 


en.  m.]   SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    149 

The  original  Congregatio  Oratorii  was  founded  by 
Philip  of  Neri  (1564). 

Among  its  first  members  was  (1)  Ccesar  Baronitis  (f  1607), 
afterwards  cardinal,  who  published  over  against  the  Magdeburg 
Centuries  his  Annales  ecclesiastici}  enriched  by  the  use  of  hither- 
to unknown  documents  from  the  Vatican  archives  and  papal 
library,  but  criticised  by  Protestants  as  compiled  sine  ullo  judicio.^ 
The  Congregation  founded  at  Paris  by  Pierre  de  Btrulle  (1611), 
under  the  same  name,  produced  such  scholars  as  (2)  Jean  Morin 
(Morinus,  f  1656),  BibUcal  scholar,  and  author  of  the  celebrated 
Commentarius  de  sacris  ecclesice  ordinaiionihus  ;  (3)  Tliomassin 
(t  1695),  who  wrote  the  Ancienne  et  nouvelle  discipline  de  Veglise, 
and  other  important  works  ;  (4)  Richard  Simon  (f  1712),  who 
appHed  historical  criticism  in  a  systematic  manner  to  the  study 
of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,^  and  also  wrote  on  the  Greek 
and  Oriental  Churches  ;  (5)  Renaudot  (f  1720),  who  prepared  a 
collection  of  Oriental  liturgies,  and  a  history  of  the  Patriarchs 
of  Alexandria  ;  (6)  Houbigant  (f  1783),  whose  Biblia  Hebraica 
offered  a  new  recension  of  the  text ;  and  (7)  Massillon  (f  1742), 
celebrated  for  the  eloquence  of  his  sermons.  Sacred  music  was 
cultivated  by  this  Congregation  to  a  remarkable  degree,  and  in 
the  Oratory  at  Paris  originated  the  first  musical  Oratorio.* 

Theological  scholarship  was  not  confined  to  these 
three  orders.     The  Dominicans  could  boast  of 

(1)  Goar  (f  1653),  author  of  the  Euchologium  Grcecorum  (1645, 
1730)  ;  (2)  Combefis  (j  1679),  the  Patristic  scholar  ;  and  (3) 
Natalis  Alexander  (f  1724),  provincial  of  his  order,  who  made 
important  contributions  to  Dogmatics,  Ethics  and  Church 
History. 

Among  the  doctors  and  teachers  of  the  Sorbonne, 
Paris,  were  : 

(1)  Richer  (Richerius,  f  1631),  the  celebrated  canonist  and 
defender  of  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church  ;  (2)  Jean  de 
Launoi  (f  1678),  an  historical  critic  in  the  field  of  Hagiology  ; 
(3)  Cotelier  (f  1686),  the  Patristic  scholar  ;  (4)  Bossuet  (f  1704), 
the  most  learned,  eloquent  and  influential  bishop  of  France  in 

1  Vide  p.  113. 

2  So  Scaliger,  quoted  by  Heinrici,  Theologische  Encyklojtddie,  p.  190 

*  Vide  Briggs,  Stxidy  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  274  seq. 

*  Vide  Gieseler,  v.  p.  119,  n.  5. 


150    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

his  day,  chief  composer  of  the  famous  Four  Propositions  of  the 
Gallican  Church  (1682),  and  author  of  the  Histoire  des  variations 
des  eglises  protestantes  and  of  many  other  important  works ; 
(5)  Du  Pin  (t  1719),  the  founder  of  Patrology  as  an  independent 
theological  disciphne,  whose  many  valuable  works  include  a 
Methode  pour  etudier  la  theologie. 

The  Jansenists  also  had  their  notable  scholars  : 

(1)  Cornelius  Jansen  (f  1638),  professor  of  theology  at  Louvain, 
and  eventually  bishop  of  Ypres,  was  distinguished  as  a  Biblical 
exegete.  His  Augustinus,  the  fruit  of  twenty- two  years  of  toil, 
pubHshed  posthumously  (1640),  excited  bitter  opposition  from  the 
Jesuits,  and  gave  rise  to  the  Jansenist  Controversy.  (2)  Blaise 
Pascal  (t  1662),  a  man  of  exceptional  learning,  in  whom  the  scien- 
tific and  the  mystic  tendencies  were  strangely  combined,  is  now 
known  chiefly  for  his  Pensees,  which  rank  as  a  religious  classic, 
and  for  his  Lettres  provinciales  (1656),  which  were  universally 
read  in  their  day,  and  exposed  the  errors  of  the  Jesuits  as  teachers 
of  morals  in  a  '  masterpiece  of  satire.'  (3)  Le  Nain  de  Tillemont 
(t  1698)  is  celebrated  for  his  Memoires  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire 
ecclesiastique  des  six  premiers  siecles.     (4)  Arnauld  (f  1694)  and 

(5)  Nicole  (t  1695),  remarkable  for  their  apologetic  and  polemic 
writings  over  against  the  Jesuits  and  the  Reformed  Churches. 

(6)  Paschasius  Quesnel  (f  1719),  priest  of  the  Oratoire  at  Paris, 
was  driven  from  France  as  a  Jansenist.  He  prepared  a  French 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  accompanied  by  Reflexions 
morales,  which  was  strongly  approved  by  De  Noailles,  archbishop 
of  Paris,  and  other  leaders  of  the  French  Church,  but  was  con- 
demned by  the  papal  bull  Unigenitus  in  one  hundred  and  one 
propositions. 

Italy  also  had  theologians  of  distinction,  especially  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  : 

(1)  Leo  Allatius  (f  1669),  '  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  so- 
called  Latinising  Greeks '  ;  ^  (2)  Muraiori  (f  1750),  who  gave  his 
name  to  the  Muratorian  Canon,  and  published  many  other 
hitherto  unknown  or  inaccessible  works,  including  Liiurgia 
Romana  vetus  ;  (3)  Mansi  (f  1769),  archbishop  of  Lucca,  whose 
great  collection  of  conciliar  decrees  is  now  appearing  in  a  new 
and  enlarged  edition  ;  (4)  Ugolino  (c.  1750),  author  of  Thesaurus 
antiquitatum  sacrarum  ;  (5-7)  three  celebrated  members  of  the 
family  Assemani :  Giuseppe  Simone  (f  1768),  editor  of  the  works  of 

1  Gieseler,  v.  p.  249. 


CH.  m.]   SEVEXTEENTH-EIGHTEEXTH  CENTURIES    151 

Ephraem  Syrus,  and  author  of  Bibliotheca  Orientcilis  Clementino- 
Vaticana ;  his  brother,  Giuseppe  Aloysio  (|  1782),  who  pub- 
lished among  other  monumental  works  a  Codex  liturgicus  ecclesice 
universoe, ;  and  their  cousin,  Stefano  Evodio  (f  1784),  whose  works 
include  Acta  sanctorum  martyrvm  orientalium  et  occidentalium ; 
(8)  Alfonso  Maria  di  Liguori  (f  1787),  saint  and  doctor  of  the 
Church,  founder  of  the  Order  of  Redemptorists  (1732),  and  noted 
for  his  Theologia  moralis. 

The  leading  Mystics  of  the  period  were  : 

(1)  Frangois  de  Sales  (f  1622),  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuit  Possevin, 
who  has  been  canonised,  and  ranks  as  a  doctor  of  the  Church  ; 

(2)  Molinos  (f  1697),  a  Spanish  priest,  celebrated  at  Rome  as 
preacher  and  confessor,  whose  Guida  spirituale  exerted  extra- 
ordinary influence  among  both  Cathohcs  and  Protestants,  yet 
brought  condemnation  upon  him  through  Jesuit  influence  ;   and 

(3)  Fenelon  (f  1715),  instructor  of  princes,  who  sought  to  '  recon- 
cile Quietism  with  orthodoxy.'  ^ 

2.  The  Puritan  movement  in  England  mas  essentially 
a  Biblical  movement.  The  Puritans  urged  a  more  thorough 
study  of  the  Scriptures,  a  catechetical  instruction  of  tJte 
people,  and  effective  preaching.  In  dogma  they  used  the 
doctrine  of  the  Covenant  as  a  structural  principle,  over 
against  the  Scholastic  method. 

The  reformers  were  men  of  great  intellectual  and 
moral  vigour.  Their  doctrines  were  the  expression  of 
their  Christian  life  and  experience.  But  they  were 
succeeded  by  lesser  men,  who  gave  their  energies  to  the 
construction  of  systems  of  dogma.  These  soon  enveloped 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation  in  a  cloud  of  speculation 
and  established  a  Protestant  Scholasticism,  Ecclesiasti- 
cism,  and  Ritualism,  which  seemed  to  earnest  men  little 
better  than  that  wliich  the  reformers  had  cast  aside. 
Accordingly  a  second  reformation  arose  in  Great  Britain 
in  the  form  of  Puritanism,  which  reaffirmed  and  sharp- 
ened the  principles  of  the  Reformation  and  advanced 
toward  a  holy  doctrine,  a  holy  discipline,  and  a  holy  lif e.^ 

1  Gieseler,  v.  p.  174.  2  yi^g  Briggs,  Church  Unity,  pp.  317  seq. 


152    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Puritanism  emphasised  the  fundamental  religious  prin- 
ciple of  Protestantism,  that  the  Bible  is  the  chief  medium 
of  divine  authority  and  grace,  and  laid  down  principles 
of  interpretation,  which  wrought  mightily  during  the 
seventeenth  century  in  Great  Britain,  and  produced 
exegetical  works  that  ought  to  be  the  pride  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Churches  in  all  time.  The  Puritans  laid  stress 
upon  practical  exegesis,  or  the  application  of  the 
Scriptures  to  the  Christian  life.  The  great  majority  of 
their  writings  are  upon  themes  comprehended  by  the 
term  Practical  Divinity?- 

The  eminent  scholars  among  the  Puritans  and  the 
members  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  were,  for  the 
most  part,  trained  in  the  English  universities. 

Cambridge  can  boast  of  :  (1)  Thomas  Cartwright  (f  1603),  chief 
of  the  English  Puritans,  and  the  father  of  English  Presbyterian- 
ism,  who  wrote  a  Treatise  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1611,  1616), 
in  which,  like  Vermigli  and  Hemmingsen,  he  arranged  his  material 
on  the  principle  of  the  Law  and  the  Gospel — an  example  followed 
by  the  Puritans  generally  ;  (2)  William  Perkins  (f  1602),  whose 
Golden  Chaine,  an  attempt  to  work  out  the  order  of  the  divine 
decrees,  stirred  up  controversy  not  only  in  England,  but  all  over 
the  Calvinistic  world  ;  (3)  William  Ames  (f  1633),  who  carried 
the  principle  of  the  Covenant  into  Holland  ;  (4)  Herbert  Palmer 
(t  1647),  whose  catechism  became  the  basis  of  the  Westminster 
Larger  Catechism,  and  whose  Memorials  of  Godliness  and  Christi- 
anity are  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  Jeremy  Taylor's  Holy  Living  ; 
(5)  William  Gouge  (f  1653),  '  the  father  of  the  London  divines, 
and  the  oracle  of  his  time  '  ;  (6)  Stephen  Marshall  (f  1655),  the 
most  influential  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  in  ecclesi- 
astical affairs ;  (7)  Edmund  Calamy  (f  1666),  who  with  Marshall 
and  others  prepared  the  famous  Answer  of  Smectymnuus  to  the 
Humble  Remonstrance  of  Joseph  Hall,  which  Answer  became  the 
platform  of  the  Presbyterian  as  the  Remxynstrance  was  that  of  the 
Episcopal  party  ;  (8)  Anthony  Tuchney  (f  1670),  one  of  the  most 
active  members  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  ;  (9)  John  Milton 
(t  1674),  who  for  twenty  years  produced  chiefly  prose  works  on 
behalf  of  the  Puritan  cause  ;   (10)  John  Lighffoot  (f  1675),  author 

1  Vide  Brigcrs,  Theological  Symholics,  pp.  260  seq.  ;  Study  of  Holy 
Scripture^  pp.  155,  467,  573,  651  seq. 


CH.  III.]    SEVEXTEEXTH-EIGHTEEXTH  CENTURIES    153 

of  HorcB  Hebraicce  et  Talmudicce,  and  important  Biblical  works  ; 
(11)  Matthew  Poole  (f  1679),  the  great  Presbyterian  critic  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  whose  masterpiece,  the  Synopsis  criticorum, 
is  a  monument  of  Biblical  learning.^ 

The  University  of  Oxford  sent  forth  such  scholars  as  :  (1)  John 
Reynolds  ("j"  1607),  one  of  the  translators  of  King  James'  Version 
of  the  Bible  ;  (2)  Nicholas  By  field  (f  1622),  whose  Principles,  or 
Pattern  of  Wholesome  Words,  is  a  valuable  compend  of  divinity ; 
(3)  John  Ball  (t  1640),  one  of  the  fathers  of  Presbyterianism  in 
England,  and  the  author  of  treatises  on  Faith  and  on  the  Covenant 
of  Grace  of  exceeding  value;  (4)  Edward  Leigh  (I  1671),  who 
ranks  among  the  best  Biblical  scholars  of  the  century  ;  (5) 
Edward  Reynolds  (f  1676),  one  of  the  master  spirits  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly  ;  (6)  John  Owen  (f  1683),  the  polemic  divine, 
who  gave  to  Puritan  Theology  a  scholastic  tj^je  which  it  did 
not  possess  before  ;  (7)  John  Durie  (f  1689),  the  great  peace- 
maker, who  tried  to  rally  the  Christians  of  his  time  on  what  he 
called  Practical  Theology ;  that  is,  such  doctrines  of  Faith  and 
Morals  as  are  of  practical  importance.^ 

Eminent  among  the  Puritan  leaders  unconnected  "with 
the  English  universities  were  : 

(1)  Andrew  Melville  (f  1622),  a  pupil  of  Ramus  and  of  Beza. 
As  reformer  Melville  led  the  battle  against  prelacy  in  Scotland ; 
as  a  teacher  at  Glasgow  and  St.  Andrews  he  '  led  the  revolt  against 
the  mediaeval  method  of  studying  Aristotle,  and  created  a  taste 
for  Greek  letters.' '  His  last  years  were  spent  in  exile,  teaching 
theology  at  the  Academy  of  Sedan.*  (2)  James  Ussher  (f  1656), 
a  pupil  of  Travers  at  Trinity  College,  Dubhn,  became  eventually 
archbishop  of  Armagh  and  primate  of  Ireland.  He  drew  up 
the  Irish  Articles  of  Religion,  and  proposed  a  Reduction  of  Episco- 
pacy unto  the  Form  of  Synodical  Government  received  in  the 
Ancient  Church,^  Ussher  also  wrote  Annales  Veteris  Testamenti, 
a  monumental  work  on  the  Apostles'  Creed,  notable  contributions 

1  Vide  Briggs,  articles  on  '  Cartwright,'  'Perkins,'  Palmer,'  'Gouge,' 
'Marshall,'  'Calamy,'  'Tuckney,'  and  '  Poole,  in  Schaf-Herzog  Encycio- 
pedia ;  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  149,  459,  575  ;  American  Preshy- 
teriaiiism,  pp.  41  seq.,  200. 

2  Vide  Biggs,  articles  on  'Byfield'  and  'Ball'  in  Schaff-Herzog 
Encyclopedia  ;  also  those  on  '  Durie,'  ibid.  (1st  edition),  and  in  Presbyterian 
heview,  1887,  vol.  viii.  pp.  297  seq.  ;  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  162, 
225  seq.,  462  seq, 

8  Sandys,  ii.  p.  247.  ^  Vide  p.  158. 

6  Vide  Briggs,  American  Presbyterianism,  Appendix  ii.  pp.  xvii  seq. 


154    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

to  Church  History,  especially  in  the  department  of  Patristics,  and 
a  Chronology  of  the  Bible  still  in  use.  (3)  Samuel  Rutherford 
(t  1661),  the  Scottish  Covenanter,  a  graduate  of  Edinburgh 
University,  was  an  able,  though  bitter,  controversialist.  (4) 
John  Bunyan  (t  1688),  the  Baptist  preacher  and  '  immortal 
dreamer,'  set  forth  in  his  Pilgrim's  Progress  and  Holy  War  the 
Puritan  conception  of  human  life  as  a  battle  with  evil,  and  gave 
in  this  respect  the  most  popular  and  best  exposition  of  the  ethical 
side  of  Puritanism.  (5)  Richard  Baxter  (f  1691),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  English  theologians,  acquired  exceptional  learning 
without  a  university  education.  He  is  now  chiefly  known  as 
the  author  of  the  Reformed  Pastor^  A  Call  to  the  Unconverted  and 
the  Saints'  Everlasting  Rest,  and  is  honoured  by  Churchmen  and 
Nonconformists  alike  as  one  who  '  in  a  stormy  and  divided  age 
advocated  unity  and  comprehension,  pointing  the  way  to  ever- 
lasting rest.'  ^ 

The  reviving  influences  of  the  Puritan  movement  were 
not  confined  to  the  Puritan  party. 

Among  the  notable  theologians  of  the  period  were  the  Caw. 
bridge  scholars :  (1)  Brian  Walton  (f  1661),  whose  Polyglot 
Bible  was  the  greatest  critical  achievement  of  the  seventeenth 
century  ;  (2)  John  Pearson  (f  1686),  author  of  a  standard  exposi- 
tion of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  of  Vindicice  epistolurum  S.  Ignatii, 
and  of  other  important  critical  works  ;  (3)  William  Cave  (f  1713), 
the  eminent  Patristic  scholar ;  also  the  great  divines :  (4) 
Lancelot  Andrewes  (f  1626),  now  known  chiefly  through  his 
Private  Devotions ;  (5)  George  Herbert  (f  1633),  famous,  not  only 
for  his  sacred  verse,  but  also  for  his  treatise  on  the  Country 
Parson  ;  (6)  John  Cosin  {f  1672),  prelate  and  controversialist, 
who  made  a  Collection  of  Private  Devotions  in  the  Practice  of  the 
Ancient  Church  ;  (7)  Jeremy  Taylor  (f  1667),  '  the  Chrysostom  of 
England,'  author  of  A  Discourse  of  the  Ldberty  of  Prophesying^ 
a  Rule  of  Conscience,  the  Great  Exemplar,  the  Worthy  Communi- 
cant, and  Rule  and  Exercises  of  Holy  lAving  and  of  Holy  Dying. 

Among  the  theologians  of  Oxford  may  be  mentioned  :  (1)  the 
poet  and  preacher,  John  Donne  (11631);  (2)  William  Chilling- 
worth  (t  1644),  who,  in  his  Religion  of  Protestants,  declared  the 
Bible  to  be  '  that  wherein  they  all  agree,  and  which  they  all 
subscribe  ...  as  a  perfect  rule  of  their  faith  and  actions ; '  * 

1  Vide  Briggs,  article  on  'Baxter'  in  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia', 
American  Presbyteriayiism,  pp.  44  scq.,  53. 

2  Vide  article  on  '  Chilling  worth '  in  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia. 


CH.  m.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    155 

(3)  John  Hales  (f  1656),  '  the  ever- memorable,'  whose  Golden 
Remains  contain  letters  from  the  Synod  of  Dort ;  (4)  Henry 
Hammond  (t  1660),  who  wrote  his  Paraphrase  and  Annotations 
upon  .  .  .  the  New  Testament  in  the  spirit  of  Erasmus  ;  (5) 
Edward  Pococke  (f  1691),  Oriental  and  Biblical  scholar,  who 
gathered  in  the  East  rich  spoils  of  Arabic  literature  ;  (6)  John 
Mill  (t  1T07),  noted  for  his  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament ; 
(7)  Joseph  Bingham  (f  1723),  who  wrote  on  Christian  Anti- 
quities ;  and  (8)  Humphrey  Prideaux  (t  1724),  who  connected 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  with  the  history  of  the  Jews  and  the 
neighbouring  nations. 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  founder  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  George  Fox  (f  1691),  who  urged  the 
following  of  the  Inner  Light ;  and  of  the  apologist  of  that 
society,  Robert  Barclay  (t  1690),  a  theologian  of  excep- 
tional learning  and  ability. 

3.  In  the  Netherlands  theological  scholar  ship  revived 
in  the  newly  founded  universities,  the  Arminian  movement, 
and  the  Federal  School  of  Theology.  Among  the  Arminians 
of  Holland,  especially  the  sclwlars  of  Ley  den,  the  Humanistic 
spirit  found  expression. 

William  of  Orange  founded  the  University  of  Leyden 
in  1575,  with  Louis  Cappell  ^  as  the  first  professor  of 
theology.  Ten  years  later  the  University  of  Franccker 
was  established,  to  be  followed  in  the  next  century  by 
those  of  Groningen  (1612),  Utrecht  (1636),  and  Harderwyk 
(1648).  The  University  of  Leyden  '  became  for  Holland 
what  Wittenberg  had  been  to  Germany,  Geneva  to 
Switzerland,  and  Saumur  to  France.'  ^ 

Among  the  great  scholars  that  taught  at  Leyden  were  the 
theologians  :    (1)  Junius  (Du  Jon,  f  1602),  a  pupil  of  Calvin  ; 

(2)  Scaliger  (De  la  Scala,  f  1609),  '  the  leading  philologist  of 
France,'  who  laid  the  foundations  for  the  science  of  Chronology  ; 

(3)  Drusiv^  (Van  den  Driesche,  f  1616),  Bibhcal  scholar  and 
exegete  ;  (4)  Arminius  (f  1609),  a  pupil  of  Jjamhertus  Danceus 
at  Leyden,  and  of  Beza  and  Gryn^us  at  Geneva  and  Basel. 

1   Vide  p.  158.  2  Liuilsay,  History  of  ike  RefcrrrMtion,  ii.  p.  264. 

VOL.  II.  L 


156    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Arminius  became  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden  in 
1603,  and  soon  aroused  the  opposition  of  his  colleague, 
Oomarus,  by  his  interpretation  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  He  also  came  into  conflict  with  William 
Perkins  of  Cambridge.^  In  the  controversy  which  raged 
about  him  and  his  followers,  Arminius  attained  such 
pre-eminence  that  his  name  was  given  to  all  subsequent 
forms  of  the  milder  Augustinianism  in  the  Reformed 
Churches.^ 

Episcopius  (t  1643),  professor  at  Leyden,  and  JJytenhogcert 
(f  1644),  preacher  at  the  Hague,  were  prominent  among  the 
Arminians.  But  the  flower  of  the  movement  was  (5)  Hugo 
Grotius  (1583-1645),  the  greatest  scholar  of  his  age,  a  pupil  of 
Scaliger  and  of  Uytenbogsert,  and  a  supporter  of  Barneveldt  in 
his  efforts  to  maintain  peace  in  the  Church.  Grotius  revived  the 
Humanism  of  Erasmus,  and  in  his  Annotations  on  the  Scriptures 
laid  stress  upon  the  historical  interpretation.  In  this  he  was 
followed  by  the  Arminians  generally,  and  especially  by  Clericus 
(Le  Clerc,  "j*  1736).  The  numerous  writings  of  Grotius  include 
valuable  theological  works  in  the  departments  of  Dogmatics, 
Irenics,  Polemics,  Church  History,  Liturgies,  and  Canon  Law. 

Important  service  to  the  study  of  theology  was  also  rendered 
by  the  Arabic  scholar,  (6)  Erpenius  (f  1624),  and  his  celebrated 
pupils,  Louis  Cappell,  the  Younger,^  and  (7)  Louis  de  Dieu 
(t  1642) ;  by  (8)  Voss  (f  1649),  who  became  unpopular  at  Leyden 
because  of  his  sympathy  with  the  Remonstrants,  and  gave  his 
last  years  to  the  University  of  Amsterdam  (1632-1649) ;  and  by 
(9)  Rivetus,  the  Huguenot  (f  1651),  one  of  the  chief  Reformed 
divines  of  the  Continent. 

Among  the  Anti-Remonstrants  may  be  mentioned :  (10) 
Jacob  Revius  (f  1658),  Hebrew  scholar  and  controversialist ;  and 
(11)  Vo'etius  (t  1676),  professor  at  Utrecht,  whose  influence 
helped  to  establish  a  Protestant  traditional  orthodoxy  in  the 
Dutch  schools.* 

The  Arminian  movement,  defeated  by  Dutch 
Scholasticism,  passed  over  into  England,  and  especially 

1  Vide  p.  152. 

«  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  211  seq, 

*  Vide  p.  165. 

*  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  147. 


CH.  m.]   SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    157 

into  the  Anglican  Church,  in  the  author  of  the  London 
Polyglot,  in  Hammond,  Pococke,  Whitby,  Lowth,  and 
Joh7i  Taylor  of  Norwich  (who  greatly  influenced  German 
Theology  in  its  reform  in  the  eighteenth  century),  and 
in  Wesley  took  the  form  of  Evangelical  Arminianism. 

The  principle  of  the  Covenant,  passing  over  into 
Holland  \\dth  the  English  Puritan  Ames,  gave  birth  to  the 
Covenant  Theology  of  Cocceius  and  Witsius. 

Ames  ^  became  professor  of  theology  at  Franecker  in  1622,  and 
rector  of  the  university  four  years  later.  Among  his  pupils  was 
(12)  Cocceius  (t  1669),  the  father  of  the  Federal  School  in  Holland, 
who  was  called  to  Franecker  in  1636,  and  to  Leyden  in  1650. 
In  addition  to  his  famous  Summa  doctriiia  defosdere  et  testamenfo 
Dei  (1648,  1654),  he  made  important  contributions  to  Biblical 
Philology,  Theology,  and  Exegesis,  and  to  the  departments  of 
Dogmatics,  Ethics,  and  Catechetics.  Among  the  pupils  of 
Cocceius  was  (13)  Vitringa  (f  1722),  professor  at  Franecker, 
celebrated  for  his  commentaries,  and  his  works  on  Sacred  History 
and  Chronology,  and  on  BibUcal  and  Practical  Theology.  (14) 
Hermann  Witsiuis  (t  1708),  Biblical  theologian  and  leader  of  the 
Dutch  Federal  School,  taught  at  the  Universities  of  Franecker, 
Utrecht  and  Leyden,  pubhshed  a  notable  work,  De  ceconomia 
fcederum  Dei  cum  hominihus,  treatises  on  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Christian  Faith,  the  Character  of  a  True 
Theologian,  and  important  Bibhcal  works. 

The  Covenant  Theology  of  Cocceius  and  Witsius 
influenced  German  Pietism,  but  eventually  combined 
with  Scholasticism  to  form  a  new  Scholasticism,  especially 
in  Scotland  and  iVmerica. 

4.  The  critical  principle  reasserted  itself  mightily  in 
the  French  School  of  Saumur,  and  a  freer  type  of  Theology 
was  there  maintained.^ 

There  v^ere  in  France,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  six 
Protestant  academies,  all  modelled  after  those  of  Stras- 
burg   and   Geneva  :     namely,   Nimes    (1561),   irenic   in 

1  Vide    p.    152.       Ames   published    his  Medulla  theologica  in   1623 
(English,  1642). 

2  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Hdy  Scripture,  p.  222. 


158    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [n.  n. 

spirit;  Saumur  (1593),  mildly  Calvinistic  and  progres- 
sive ;  Montauhan  (1597)  and  Sedan  (c.  1602),  both 
Scholastic  ;  Orthez  (1566)  and  Die  (c.  1596),  both  in- 
significant. The  Academies  of  Saumur,  Sedan  and 
Montauban  took  an  active  part  in  theological  contro- 
versy, and  became  centres  of  theological  learning.  The 
foreign  element  was  always  strong,  especially  in  Saumur 
and  Sedan  ;  and  Italy,  Switzerland,  Holland,  Germany, 
and  Scotland  contributed  to  the  faculties  of  the  French 
Academies  as  well  as  to  the  student  bodies.  Scotland 
gave  '  a  Pleiades  of  distinguished  men.'  ^ 

(I.)  The  Academy  of  Nimes  was  originally  a  school  of  grammar 
and  logic,  civil  and  canon  law,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century. 
/Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  transformed  after  the  model 
of  the  School  of  the  Three  Languages  ^  at  Paris,  and  under  the 
inspiration  of  the  pedagogic  principles  of  Sturm  of  Strasburg. 
In  1561  the  Protestant  consistory  added  to  it  a  school  of  theology 
with  four  professors,  one  for  Hebrew,  one  for  Greek,  one  for 
philosophy,  and  one  for  doctrine.  The  only  famous  teacher  of 
theology  in  this  academy  was  Pierre  Viret.^ 

(11.)  The  Academy  of  Orthez  was  founded  in  1566  with  pro- 
fessors of  theology,  Greek,  Hebrew,  philosophy,  mathematics 
and  music.  Viret  taught  there  in  1571,  and  Lambert  Daneau 
in  1583-1593. 

(III.)  Sedan  was  organised  as  a  College  in  1579 ;  the  Academy 
proper  was  established  in  1602.  Among  the  famous  teachers  of 
theology  at  this  institution  were  Louis  Cappell  (1576-1586),  who 
came  to  Sedan  from  Leyden  ;  *  Jacques  Cappell  (1599-1624), 
a  nephew  of  Louis  ;  Daniel  TiUnus  (1600-1620),  Andrew  Melville  ^ 
(1611-1620),  and  Le  Blanc  de  Beaulieu  (1644-1675).  Philosophy 
was  taught  here  by  John  Cameron  (1602-1604)  and  by  Pierre 
Bayle  (1675-1681).  Other  illustrious  names  might  be  added. 
Pierre  du  Moidin  (1621-1658),  who  had  taught  philosophy  at 
Leyden,  is  said  to  have  '  acquired  at  Sedan  an  influence  equal  to 
that  which  Amyraut  enjoyed  at  Saumur.'  * 

(IV.)  The  School  of  Montauhan  was  founded  in  1597.     One  of 

1  Bourchenin,  Etude  sur  les  Academies  Protestantes  en  Franct  au 
XVI*  et  au  XVI I«  Siecle,  1882,  p.  402. 

2  Le  college  royal  des  trots  langues. 

3  Vide  p.  127.  ^   Vide  p.  155.  "  Vide  p.  153. 
•  Bourchenin,  Les  Academies  protestantes  en  France,  pp.  428  seq. 


CH.  III.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEEXTH  CENTURIES    159 

its  first  professors  of  theology  was  Daniel  Chamier  (1612-1G21). 
John  Cayneron  taught  there  in  1624-1625,  and  Jean  Claude  in 
1662-1666.  Claude  was  '  regarded  in  his  day  as  the  soul  of  the 
Reformed  party  in  France.'  ^  In  theology  the  school  of  Mon- 
tauban  mediated  between  those  of  Sedan  and  Saumur. 

{V.)  Die  had  a  college  in  1596,  and  an  academy  of  theology 
c.  1604.  Daniel  Chamier  presided  there  in  1607-1608 ;  and 
John  Sharp  taught  theology  in  1607-1629. 

(VI.)  The  Academy  of  Saumur  was  founded  in  1593  by  the 
great  general,  Dwplessis-Mornay,  and  became  the  most  famous 
of  all  the  French  academies.  There  were  chairs  of  theology, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  philosophy. 

Saumur  had  several  great  divines  :  John  Cameron, 
Josue  de  la  Place,  and  Amyraut,  theologians  who  taught 
mediate  imjjULi.tion  and  hypothetic  universalism  ;  and 
Ludovicus  Cap^.elluSy  the  greatest  Biblical  critic  of  his 
age. 

(1)  John  Cameron  of  Glasgow  (f  1625)  taught  theology  at 
Saumur  (1618-1622),  and  impressed  his  views  upon  his  illustrious 
pupil,  AmjTaut.  (2)  Mdise  Amyraut  (Amyraldus,  1596-1664)  was 
a  teacher  at  Saumur  for  thirty-eight  years.  As  early  as  the  year 
1634  he  created  great  excitement  by  the  publication  of  a  Traite 
de  la  'predestination.  His  important  work  includes  a  System  of 
Christian  Morals  (in  six  volumes).  (3)  Placeus  (De  La  Place, 
1596-1655)  was  also  a  follower  of  Cameron,  and  taught  theology 
at  Saumur  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century.  In  his  Disputatio 
de  imputatione  primi  peccati  Adami  (1655)  he  asserted  the  doctrine 
of  mediate  imputation  as  alone  justifiable  on  moral  grounds.^ 
(4)  Louis  Cap  pell,  the  Younger  (Cappellus,  1585-1658),  nephew 
of  the  elder  Louis  and  brother  of  Jacques,  taught  Hebrew  and 
theology  at  Saumur  for  forty-four  years,  and  became  the  most 
eminent  Biblical  scholar  of  his  day.  Falling  back  on  the  vie^^'3 
of  the  Jewish  scholar,  Ellas  Levita  (f  1549),  and  of  the  Protestant 
reformers,  Cappellus  denied  the  verbal  inspiration  of  the  Mas- 
soretic  Biblical  text,  showed  that  the  Hebrew  vowel  points 
were  not  original,  and  that  there  were  different  readings  of  the 
text,  and  laid  stress  upon  grammatical  and  historical  exegesis. 
He  was  sustained  by  the  French  theologians  generally,  and  by 

1  Gieseler,  t.  p.  351. 

2  Vide  Brigcfs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  213  seq. ;  also  Placeus,  De 
statu  honvnis  lajpsi  ante  gratiam,  1(540. 


160    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

the  body  of  English  critics.  Cocceius  first  gave  his  name  to  the 
public  as  author  of  the  anonymous  work.  Arcanum  punctuafionis 
revelatum  (1624).  This  work  remained  unanswered  and  wrought 
powerfully  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  when  the  younger 
Buxtorf  undertook  to  maintain  against  Cappellus  the  traditional 
Rabbinical  position.  The  three  universities  of  Sedan,  Geneva, 
and  Leyden  were  roused  to  such  opposition  to  Cappellus,  that 
they  sought  to  prevent  the  publication  of  his  great  work,  the 
Critica  sacra.  It  appeared,  however,  in  1650,  and  proved  to  be 
the  first  of  a  series  of  corresponding  productions. 

These  great  scholars  of  Saumur  taught  large  bodies 
of  students  from  many  lands.  In  England  the  influ- 
ence of  this  school  was  apparent  among  the  Puritans, 
especially  in  Calamy  and  Baxter,  and  became  known 
as  Baxterianism,  or  the  New  Theology,  and  so  passed 
over  to  America  as  New  School  Theology,  and  in 
England  and  Ireland  attached  itself  to  vital  reforming 
movements.^  But  the  scholastic  theologians  of  France, 
Holland,  and  Switzerland  bitterly  opposed  the  School 
of  Saumur.  These  controversies  greatly  weakened 
French  Protestantism  at  a  critical  period. 

Among  the  French  theologians  trained  at  Saumur  and  Sedan 
were :  (1)  Jacques  Basnage  (f  1723),  fourth  in  a  succession  of 
theologians  of  that  surname,  the  author  of  many  historical, 
dogmatic  and  polemic  works  ;  and  (2)  Jacques  Abbadie  (f  1727), 
whose  apologetic  and  ethical  treatises  were  widely  known. 

In  addition  to  these  six  academies  there  were  two  schools  of 
little  or  brief  importance,  the  one  at  Montpellier,  the  other  at 
Orange.  (VII.)  Montpellier  Academy  was  founded  in  1596.  In 
1609  it  possessed  chairs  of  theology,  Hebrew  and  Greek  ;  but 
by  1617  it  had  been  absorbed  in  the  school  of  Nimes.  Isaac 
Casaubon  (f  1614),  the  great  Humanist,  whose  learning  almost 
rivalled  that  of  Scaliger,  came  from  teaching  Greek  at  Geneva 
to  help  in  building  up  the  new  school  (1596-1599).  His  chief 
contribution  to  theology  was  his  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament. 
Daniel  Chamier  (f  1621)  was  active  in  the  founding  of  this 
academy ;  and  Thomas  Dempster  taught  philosophy  there  in 
1605. 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  222  seq.  ;  TheologicoU 
Symbolics,  pp.  373  seq. 


en.  III.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    161 

(VIII.)  The  School  of  Orange  (c.  1573)  had  also  a  brief  existence, 
and  like  those  of  Montpeliier  and  Orthex,  took  no  part  in  theo- 
logical controversy.  Indeed,  the  Academy  of  Orange  was  not 
attached  to  the  French  Churches  by  any  administrative  Unk.^ 

All  of  the  French  theological  schools  were  short-lived. 
The  last  was  suppressed  by  Louis  xiv.  in  1685. 

5.  In  England  Francis  Bacon  became  the  father  of 
Inductive  Philosophy  over  against  the  Aristotelian,  and 
greatly  influenced  all  subsequent  English  thought,  giving 
it  an  abiding  bent  towards  empirical  and  experimental 
philosophy. 

This  philosophy  in  its  several  forms  undermined 
British  Theology,  and  produced  eventually  the  Deist 
movement. 

The  influence  of  Bacon  (f  1626)  and  the  Inductive 
Philosophy  was  greatly  promoted  by  the  growth  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  or  the  study  of  the  Science  of 
Nature  by  the  experimental  method,  pursued  on  the 
Continent  by  Copernicus  (f  1543),  Kepler  (f  1630), 
Galileo  (f  1642),  and  a  host  of  followers  ;  and  in  England 
by  Napier  (f  1617),  Harvey  (f  1657),  and  others.  These 
men  built  up  the  Natural  Sciences,  which  continually 
pressed  more  and  more  into  the  universities  and  influ- 
enced students  of  theology,  who  were  led  thereby  to 
make  more  of  the  realities  of  nature  and  of  life.  V^lth 
that  came  increased  attention  to  the  i^rinciples  of  educa- 
tion and  the  building  up  of  the  science  of  education, 
especially  through  the  labours  of  Ratichius  (1571-1635) 
and  Comenius  (1592-1670).  Amos  Comenius,  bishop  of 
the  Moravians,  exerted  extraordinary  influence  through 
his  Great  Didactic  and  other  educational  works.  His 
principles  were  : 

(1)  Omnia  e  principiis  rerum  immotis  deriventur. 
1  Vide  Bourchenin,  Les  Academies protestantes  en  France,  p.  396. 


162     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

(2)  Nihil  doceatur  per  autoritatem  nudam,  omnia  per  demon- 
strationem  sensualem  et  ratiorialem. 

(3)  Nihil  methodo  analytica  sola,  synthetica  potius  omnia. 

All  these  efforts  for  reform  aimed,  as  Paulsen  shows,  ^ 
at  these  things  : 

(1)  The  learning,  not  only  of  languages,  but  also  of  realities 
(mathematics,  the  natural  sciences,  history,  geography). 

(2)  The  learning  of  languages  aright  :  not  the  language  from 
grammar,  but  the  grammar  from  language. 

(3)  The  study  of  the  modern  languages. 

(4)  Study  not  by  compulsion,  but  by  rational  methods :  the 
use  of  the  intelligence,  rather  than  the  rod. 

In  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century  new  philo- 
sophical theories  came  into  the  field  to  displace  the 
Aristotelian  and  Platonic  philosophies,  in  the  Avorks  of 
Hobbes,  Descartes,  Spinoza,  Locke,  Leibnitz,  and  their 
associates.  Deism  arose  in  England,  and  sought  to 
reduce  Christianity  to  a  religion  of  nature  with  the 
human  reason  as  the  sole  authority.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  the  movement  was  gradually  overcome  in  Great 
Britain  and  driven  to  the  Continent,  where  it  ran  riot  in 
various  forms  of  Rationalism.  It  should  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  the  Scholastic  Theology  did  not  recover  the 
authority  it  had  lost  in  the  universities  of  England,  but 
only  in  Scotland  and  among  the  English  Noncon- 
formists in  part,  so  far  as  they  were  influenced  by  their 
training  in  the  universities  of  Holland.  The  Church  (^f 
England  since  the  Reformation  has  always  trained  her 
clergy  in  Positive  Theology,  that  is,  in  the  Scriptures 
and  the  Creeds.  No  great  system  of  theology  has 
been  produced  since  the  Reformation  in  the  Church  of 
England. 

(1)  Francis  Bacon  (1501-1629)  was  trained  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  '  first  fell  into  the  dislike  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle, 

1  Vide  Paulsen,  Oeschichie  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  2nd  edition,  i, 
pp.  469,  471  s^^. 


CH.  III.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    163 

,  .  .  being  a  philosophy  only  strong  for  disputations  and  con- 
tentions, but  barren  of  the  production  of  works  for  the  benefit 
of  the  life  of  man.'  ^  He  described  the  Schoolmen  as  '  having 
sharp  and  strong  wits,  and  abundance  of  leisure,  and  small 
variety  of  reading,  but  their  wits  being  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  a 
few  authors  (cliiefiy  Aristotle  their  dictator),  .  .  .  and  knowing 
little  history,  either  of  nature  or  time  (they)  did,  out  of  no  great 
quantity  of  matter  and  infinite  agitation  of  wit,  open  out  unto  us 
those  laborious  webs  of  learning,  which  are  extant  in  their  books.' ^ 
Bacon's  great  works  include  his  Novum  organnm.  Advancement 
of  Learning,  and  famous  Essays.  He  also  wrote  a  Confession 
of  Faith,  and  devotional  works. 

(2)  John  Locke  (1632-1704),  of  Oxford,  'the  originator  of  the 
empirical  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century,'  ^  and  author  of 
the  famous  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding,  pubUshed  also 
Letters  on  Toleration,  the  Reasonableness  of  Christianity,  treatises 
on  IVIiracles  and  on  Education,  and  Paraphrases  on  the  great 
Pauhne  Epistles. 

Among  the  opponents  of  Deism  may  be  mentioned  :  (3) 
Joseph  Butler  (1692-1752),  also  an  Oxford  scholar  and  bishop 
of  Durham,  famous  for  his  sermons  and  for  his  Analogy  of  Religion, 
Natural  and  Revealed  (1736),  which  has  been  a  universal  text-book 
of  Apologetics.* 

6.  At  Helmstddt  the  irenical  school  of  Calixtus  struggled 
with  the  scholastic  spirit,  and  reverted  from  the  scholastic 
method  to  the  historical  and  Biblical  methods.^ 

The  University  of  Helmstadt  allowed  its  theological 
professors  exceptional  liberty  in  matters  of  doctrine. 
One  of  the  Helmstadt  theologians,  (1)  George  Calixtns 
(1586-1656),  became  the  chief  irenic  divine  of  the  early 
seventeenth  century. 

The  father  of  CaUxtus,  a  pupil  of  Melanchthon,  transmitted  to 
him  the  theology  of  that  Reformer.  Some  years  of  travel  in 
other  countries  gave  him  a  personal  knowledge  of  both  the 

1  Bacon,  Advancement  of  Learning,  ed.  Aldis  Wright,  pref.  p.  vi.  ; 
vide  Sandys,  ii.  p.  338. 

2  Vide  Sandys,  ii.  p.  339. 

3  Vide  article  on  '  Locke,'  in  New  Schaff-IIerzog  Encyclopedia. 
*  Ftc/e  Biiggs,   Whither  t  ^.  '1\1 . 

•>  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  147,  574 ;  Theological 
Symbolics,  pp.  9,  21. 


164     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

Roman  Catholic  and  the  Reformed  Churches.  He  began  to 
seek  a  basis  for  reunion  in  the  Christian  consensus  of  the  first 
five  centuries.  Serving  as  professor  of  theology  at  Helmstadt 
for  over  forty  years  (1614-1656),  he  exerted  a  widespread  and 
powerful  influence  as  an  advocate  of  Christian  Unity.  He  also 
did  valuable  work  as  a  Biblical  and  dogmatic  theologian,  and 
to  him  is  ascribed  the  founding  of  the  discipline  of  Ethics  in 
theology. 

The  irenic  teaching  of  Calixtus  excited  great  opposi- 
tion in  the  so-called  Syncretistic  Controversies. 

The  University  of  Helmstadt  supported  Cahxtus.  Among  his 
defenders  was  (2)  Hermann  Conring  (f  1681),  who  '  excelled  in 
almost  every  department  of  human  knowledge '  ^  and  published 
several  irenic  works.  (3)  Molanus  (f  1722),  who  worked  with 
Leibnitz  and  Spinola  for  a  reunion  of  Protestants  and  Cathohcs, 
and  with  Leibnitz  and  Jablonski  for  a  union  of  the  Lutherans 
with  the  Reformed,  was  one  of  the  pupils  of  Calixtus.  Promi- 
nent among  his  opponents  was  (4)  Calovius  of  Wittenberg  (f  1686). 
Several  of  the  theologians  of  Konigsberg  were  classed  as  Syn- 
cretists,  among  them  (5)  Grabe  (t  1711),  the  patristic  scholar,  who 
published  an  edition  of  the  Septuagint.  (6)  Johann  Gerhard 
(t  1637),  regarded  by  his  cotemporaries  as  the  greatest  theo- 
logian of  the  time,  died  before  the  controversy  had  fairly  begun. 
His  pupils  at  Jena,  (7)  Glassius  (f  1656),  author  of  Philologia 
sacra,  and  (8)  Mus(eus{-\  1681),  a  noted  dogmatic  theologian, 
maintained  a  mediating  position.  (9)  Martin  Geier  of  Leipzig 
(t  1680)  took  no  part  in  the  conflict ;  but  produced,  according  to 
Gieseler,  '  the  best  commentaries  on  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment which  appeared  during  this  period.'  ^ 

7.  The  milder  Calvinism  and  the  critical  spirit  of  the 
school  of  Saumur  took  refuge  in  Switzerland,  and  reappeared 
in  the  younger  Turretin  of  Geneva,  in  Osterwald  of  Neu- 
chdtel,  and  in  Werenfels  of  Basel. 

In  1675  Heidegger  of  Ziirich,  with  the  co-operation  of 
Gernler  of  Basel  and  Frangois  Turretin  of  Geneva,  drew 
up  the  Formula  Consensus  Helvetica  as  a  definition  of 
Scholastic  Calvinism  over  against  the  milder  Calvinism 
of  the  school  of  Saumur.     Under  the  influence  of  these 

1  Gieseler,  r.  p.  272.  2  md.,  p.  283. 


CH.  m.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTXJRIES    165 

great  divines  the  Formula  was  adopted  by  several  of 
the  Cantons  of  Switzerland  ;  and  its  doctrines  were 
maintained  by  Scholastic  Calvinists  in  other  countries, 
especially  in  Holland  and  Scotland  ;  but  it  had  little 
influence  in  Germany  or  England,  and  was  overthrowTi 
in  Switzerland  in  the  next  generation,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  younger  Turretin.^  The  reaction  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  even  earlier,  with  Peter  Werenfels 
(t  1703),  Gernler's  successor  at  Basel,^  whose  son  Samuel 
(t  1740)  co-operated  with  Turretin  and  Osterwald  in 
the  Swiss  revolt  against  Scholasticism. 

(1)  Heidegger  of  Ziirich  (f  1698)  made  important  contributions 
to  Dogmatics,  Ethics,  Church  History,  Biblical  Theology,  Sym- 
bolics, and  Christian  Institutions.  (2)  Francois  Turretin  (Tur- 
rettini,  f  1687)  published  an  Insiitutio  iheologios  elencticos,  which 
was  used  as  a  text-book  by  Scottish  and  American  Presby- 
terians till  towards  the  close  of  last  century,  to  the  neglect 
of  the  Westminster  divines.  His  son,  (3)  Jean  AlpJwnse  Tur- 
retin (t  1737),  was  the  chief  of  those  who  secured  the  aboUtion 
of  the  Helvetic  Consensus  in  1725.  He  corresponded  with 
Leibnitz,  Frederick  i.  of  Prussia,  and  Archbishop  Wake  of  Canter- 
bury, on  behalf  of  Church  Unity,  and  pubhshed  dogmatic,  irenic 
and  exegetical  works.  (4)  Benedict  Pictet  (f  1724)  was  a  cousin 
of  the  younger  Turretin,  and  like  him  a  hberal  and  irenic  theo- 
logian. He  produced  important  works  on  Christian  Theology 
and  Ethics. 

Among  the  other  Swiss  theologians  of  the  period  were :  (5) 
the  Semitic  scholar,  Johann  Heinrich  Hottinger  of  Zurich  (f  1667), 
and  (6)  his  son,  Johann  Jacob  (t  1735),  both  of  whom  chd  notable 
work  in   Church  History;   (7)  John  Buxtorf,  father  (f  1629)  and 

(8)  son  (t  1664),  who  were  influential  in  establishing  a  Protestant 
traditional  orthodoxy  in  the  Swiss  schools,  and  maintained  the 
divine  origin  and  authority  of  the  Massoretic  vowel  points  and 
accents,  yet  rendered  valuable  service  by  their  Hebrew  Concord- 
ance and  other  philological.  Biblical  and  historical  works  ;    and 

(9)  Suicer  (f  1684),  author  of  the  celebrated  Thesaurus  ecclesi- 
asticuSy  and  other  lexicographal  works. 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  213  seq.  ;  Study  of  Eoly 
Scri]>iure,  p.  225. 

2  Vide  Dorner,  Geschichte  der protesiantischen  Theolog'e,  p.  439,  n.  1. 


1G6    HISTORY  OP  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

8.  The  Cambridge  Platonists  revived  the  ethical  type  of 
Theology  in  England,  and  strove  to  give  the  human  reason 
its  proper  place  and  function  in  m/ztters  of  religion. 

The  Cambridge  Platonists  were  Puritan  in  origin  and 
training.  Predominantly  rational  and  ethical,  they  were 
characterised  also  by  the  mystic  spirit,  especially  in  the 
case  of  Henry  More  (t  1687).  Like  the  school  of  Saumur 
in  France  and  the  school  of  Calixtus  in  Germany,  this 
group  of  Cambridge  scholars  helped  to  prepare  the  way 
for  a  broad,  comprehensive  Church.^  The  leaders 
among  them,  with  the  exception  of  More,  all  belonged  to 
the  famous  Puritan  college  Emmanuel,  The  most 
notable  of  these  theologians  were  Whichcote  and  Cud- 
worth. 

(1)  Benjamin  Whichcote  (1609-1683)  exerted  strong  influence 
as  a  teacher,  especially  through  the  lectures  which  he  gave  at 
Trinity  College  on  Sunday  afternoons  for  twenty  years.  Cud- 
worth,  More  and  John  Smith  (|  1652)  were  among  his  disciples. 
His  writings  were  all  issued  posthumously,  and  include  Moral 
and  Religious  Aphorisms,  sermons,  and  a  remarkable  correspond- 
ence with  Anthony  Tuckney.^  Whichcote  declared  :  '  God  hath 
set  up  two  lights  to  enlighten  us  in  our  way  :  the  light  of  reason, 
which  is  the  light  of  His  creation  ;  and  the  light  of  Scripture, 
which  is  after-revelation  from  Him.  Let  us  make  use  of  these 
two  lights  ;   and  suffer  neither  to  be  put  out.'  ^ 

(2)  Ealph  Cudworth  (1617-1688),  the  most  celebrated  philo- 
sopher of  this  school,  was  Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew.  He 
wrote  on  The  True  Intellectual  System  of  the  Universe,  on  Eternal 
and  Immutable  Morality,  and  on  Free  Will. 

9.  Puritanism  eventually  gave  birth  to  Pietism  in 
Peformed  and  Lutheran  Germany,  producing  the  Biblical 
school  of  Bengel  and  the  Moravians. 

Pietism  was  the  salvation  of  Germany  and  Methodism 
of  Great  Britain.  Pietism  in  Germany  owed  its  origin 
to    English    Puritanism,    which   gave    the    impulse    to 

I  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  574  sea. 

♦  Vide  p.  162. 

•»  Vide  article  on  *  Whichcote,'  in  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclojpedia. 


CH.  m.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEEXTH  CENTURIES    167 

Holland  first,  and  then  to  the  Reformed  Churches  of 
the  Rhine,  until  at  length  it  reached  Strasburg,  and 
moved  first  Spener,  then  Koelmann,  and  finally  Zinzen- 
dorf.  The  Pietism  of  Germany  and  Holland,  especially 
that  of  the  type  of  Zinzendorf ,  in  turn  greatly  influenced 
British  Methodism. ^ 

(1)  Philip  Jacob  Spener  (1635-1705),  the  father  of  German 
Pietism,  studied  at  Strasburg,  Basel,  Geneva  and  Tubingen,  and 
was  influenced  by  the  Puritan  piety,  especially  of  Baxter,  and  by 
the  French  of  Jean  de  Labadie  (t  1674),  founder  of  a  Quietistic 
sect  in  Holland.  Spener  began  to  preach  at  Strasburg  in  1663, 
and  three  years  later  was  called  to  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  where 
he  organised  the  Collegia  pietatis  (1670)  to  promote  the  study  of 
the  Bible  and  the  practice  of  devotion.  Similar  circles  were 
formed  in  other  cities,  and  the  interest  in  Biblical  study  greatly 
increased.  Spener  worked  subsequently  in  Dresden,  and  finally, 
from  1691,  in  Berlin,  exerting  great  influence,  especially  through 
his  writings.  The  most  important  of  these  were  the  Pia  desi- 
deria  (1675),  Geistliches  Prieste.rthum,  Theologische  Bedenken, 
and  the  treatise  De  impedimentis  studii  theologici.  Spener 
emphasised  the  practical  in  theology.  He  and  his  followers 
were  of  the  mystic  type  ;  and  they  adopted  many  of  the  chief 
features  of  Puritanism.  The  German  Pietists  laid  stress  upon 
personal  relations  to  God  and  experimental  piety,  in  order  to  the 
interpretation  of  Scripture.  This  was  accompanied  among  the 
best  of  them  with  true  scholarship.  In  their  study  of  theology 
they  discarded  the  scholastic  method  in  favour  of  the  historical 
and  BibHcal  methods.  They  did  not  form  a  separate  denomina- 
tion, but  remain  as  a  party  in  the  Churches  of  Germany  until  the 
present  day.^  However,  they  established  a  theological  school 
at  Halle  with  Francke  at  its  head. 

(2)  August  Hermann  Francke  (1663-1727)  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Collegium  philobihlicum  (1686),  and  of  the 
Collegia  biblica  (1689),  at  Leipzig.  Through  Spener's  influence 
he  was  caUed  to  the  new  university  at  Halle  (1692)  as  professor 
of  Greek  and  the  Oriental  languages,  and  as  pastor  to  a  suburban 
church.  With  the  co-operation  of  his  colleagues,  Breithaupt 
(t  1732)  and  Anton  (f  1730),  he  made  Halle  a  great  centre  of 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Stiidy  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  574  ;  American  Presby- 
terianism,  pp.  238  seq.  ;  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  244  seq. 

2  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  466  seq.  ;  Theological 
Symbolics,  pp.  9,  244. 


168     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [ft.  n. 

Pietism,  tie  founded  the  famous  Orphan  Asylum,  the  Pdda- 
goqium,  and  other  educational  institutions,  and  made  them 
training  schools  in  Pedagogy  and  Pastoral  Theology  for  the 
students  of  Halle.  At  his  death  more  than  2200  children  were 
under  instruction,  and  250  students  were  receiving  practical 
training  as  teachers  and  pastors  in  these  institutions.  The  most 
important  of  Francke's  writings  treat  of  Biblical  Interpretation 
and  Hermeneutics.  The  best  exegete  among  the  Pietists  was 
(3)  Johann  Albert  Bengel  (t  1752),  '  the  founder  of  New  Testa- 
ment criticism  in  the  Lutheran  Church,'  ^  whose  interpretation 
is  a  model  of  piety  and  accuracy.  To  his  famous  Gnomon  Novi 
Testamenti  he  added  other  valuable  Biblical  works,  and  carried 
on  the  work  of  Mill  in  a  critical  text  of  the  New  Testament. 

Pietism  was  carried  into  the  Moravian  Church  by  (4)  Nicolaus 
Ludwig  Zinzendorf  (1700-1760),  a  disciple  of  Francke,  trained  at 
his  Pddagogium  in  Halle.  Zinzendorf  received  the  exiles  from 
Moravia  on  his  estate  at  Herrnhut  (1722),  and  reorganised  them 
as  the  Unitas  Fratrum  with  the  Ratio  disciplincB  of  Bishop 
Comenius.2  His  writings  comprise  sermons,  hymns,  and  various 
doctrinal  and  devotional  works. 

10.  The  vital  religion  and  ethical  principles  of  Puritan- 
ism revived  in  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  in  the  form 
of  Methodism,  under  the  leadership  of  Wesley  and  White- 
field. 

Deism  was  overcome  in  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies 
by  the  vital  religion  and  Christian  experience  of  Method- 
ism, a  genuine  development  of  British  Christianity,  yet 
strongly  influenced  by  the  Pietism  of  the  Continent. 
Methodism  was,  indeed,  an  historical  recompense  for 
the  influence  of  Puritanism  upon  Continental  Christian- 
ity. The  fathers  of  Methodism  were  Wesley  and  White- 
field,  the  one  an  Arminian,  the  other  a  Calvinist.  It 
was  their  earnest  desire  and  purpose  to  organise  holy 
circles  within  the  Church,  after  the  example  of  German 
Pietism  ;  but  intolerance  compelled  their  followers  for 
the  most  part  to  organise  separate  churches  in  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland  and  America.  The  Church  of  England 
secession   was   made   by   Wesley   and   Whitefield,   and 

>  Gieseler,  v.  p.  296.  *  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  p.  244. 


CH.  in.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    169 

resolved  itself  into  the  Armiiiian  branch  of  Wesley  and 
the    Calvinistic   branch    of    Whiteficld.     The    secession 
from  the  Church  of  Scotland  was  led  by  the  Erskines, 
who,   after  suspension  by  that  Church,   organised  an 
Associate  Presbytery  (1733).     The  American  secession 
was  in  the  New  Side  Presbyterians.      The  Congrega- 
tionalists  and  the  Baptists  divided  into  parties  ;  but  did 
not  separate,  because  of  their  loose  organisation  and  the 
difficulty  of  ecclesiastical  division.     There  was,  however, 
a  considerable  amount  of  disfellowship  and  conflict.     A 
large    number    of    Methodists    remained    in    the    older 
organisations,  preferring  limitation  to  separation.     Still 
greater  numbers  were  influenced  more  or  less  by  the  new 
movement,  and  the  whole  Christian  body  was  enlivened 
and  refreshed.     Scholasticism  and  Deism  were  stayed, 
and  gradually  driven  back  all  over  the  Anglo-Saxon 
world.      Methodism,     like     Pietism,     emphasised     the 
Christian   religious   experience,   laying  more   stress  on 
vital  and  spiritual  Christianity,  and  less  on  doctrinal 
and  institutional  Christianity  ;    although  they  cannot 
be  said  to  have  departed  from  the  fundamental  doctrines 
or    historic    institutions    of    Christianity.^     Yet    while 
Pietism  succeeded  in  establishing  its  headquarters  at 
the  University  of  Halle,  Methodism,  forced  out  of  the 
national  Church,  had  to  train  its  ministers  in  theological 
colleges  and  seminaries. 

(1)  John  Wesley  (1703-1791)  was  trained  at  Oxford  University, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  famous  Holy  Club  (1729),  whose 
members  won  the  name  of  Methodists  by  '  the  exact  regularity 
of  their  lives  and  studies.'  Wesley  was  strongly  influenced  by 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Luther,  and  his  cotemporary, 
the  mystic,  William  Laiu  (t  1761),  author  of  the  Serious  Call  to  a 
Devout  and  Holy  Life,  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Christian  Perfection^ 
and  other  remarkable  works.  But  it  was  chiefly  through  the 
Moravians  that  Wesley  was  guided  to  the  adoption  of   those 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  p.  245. 


170    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

principles  and  methods  which  have  become  the  characteristic 
features  of  Methodism.  In  1739,  following  the  example  of 
Whitefield,  Wesley  began  the  practice  of  preaching  in  the  open 
air,  which  he  continued  for  upwards  of  fifty  years.  In  the  same 
year  the  first  society  of  Methodists  was  formed.  The  writings 
of  Wesley  include  a  Plain  Account  of  Christian  Perfection,  Notes 
on  the  New  Testament,  a  Short  History  of  Methodism,  sermons, 
journals,  and  doctrinal  and  practical  tracts. 

(2)  Charles  Wesley  (1708-1788),  brother  and  collaborator  of 
John,  has  been  called  '  the  poet  of  Methodism,'  and  is  now  known 
chiefiy  through  his  hymns. 

(3)  George  Whitefield  (1714-1770)  was  one  of  the  members  of 
the  Holy  Club  at  Oxford.  He  became  known  in  Great  Britain 
and  her  colonies  in  America  as  an  evangelist  and  field  preacher 
of  wonderful  power  and  success.  He  laid  the  foundations  of  a 
famous  school  at  Kingswood,  near  Bristol ;  and  wrote  The  Chris- 
tian History  ;  or,  A  General  Account  of  the  Progress  of  the  Gospel 
in  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  America,  as  well  as  sermons  and 
autobiographical  works. 

(4)  Fletcher  of  Madeley  (De  la  Fl^chere,  f  1785),  the  chief 
theologian  of  the  Wesleyans,  was  born  on  Lake  Geneva,  but 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  became 
associated  with  John  Wesley.  He  served  as  pastor  at  Madeley 
for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  was  noted  for  his  power  in 
preaching  and  his  moderation  in  controversy.  He  wrote  the 
celebrated  Checks  to  Antinomianism  and  a  Portrait  of  St.  Paul, 
or  the  True  Model  for  Christians  and  Pastors. 

Methodism  began  in  America  in  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church, 
under  the  ministry  of  (5)  Jacoh  Frelinghuysen,  a  native  of  East 
Friesland  and  disciple  of  Koelmann,  the  Dutch  Pietist.  He 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Raritan,  New  Jersey  (c.  1720),  and 
laboured  in  that  region  for  twenty- seven  years.  Through 
Frehnghuysen  the  Puritan  spirit  flowed  with  new  vigour.  White- 
field  recognised  in  him  '  a  worthy  old  soldier  of  Jesus  Christ,' 
'  the  Beginner  of  the  great  Work,  which  I  trust  the  Lord  is  carry- 
ing on  in  these  parts.'  ^  The  representative  Methodists  among 
the  Presbyterians  were  the  Tennents,  father  and  son.  (6)  Gilbert 
Tennent  began  his  work  at  New  Brunswick  in  1726.  His  father, 
(7)  William  (t  1746),  opened  a  Log  College  at  Neshaminy,  Penn- 
sylvania (after  1727),  for  the  training  of  young  men  for  the 
ministry,  which  proved  of  immense  service  to  the  cause  of  Christ, 
and   was   likened   by   Whitefield   to    '  the   Schools   of   the   old 

1  Vide  Briggs,  American  Preshyterianism,  pp.  239  seq. 


CH.  m.]    SEVENTEEXTH-EIGHTEEXTH  CENTURIES    171 

Prophets.'  ^     About  the  Tennents  gathered  a  strong  body  of 
earnest,  devout,  and  zealous  ministers  and  laymen. 

The  great  Congregational  Methodist  was  Jonathan  Edwards,^ 
the  father  of  modern  British  and  American  Theology — not  so 
much  in  those  metaphysical  matters  to  which  his  name  is  so 
frequently  attached,  as  in  those  characteristic  doctrines  of  the 
Methodist  movement,  which  he  so  successfully  formulated  and 
explained.' 

11.  The  American  colonists  founded  colleges  modelled 
after  those  of  the  British  Universities^  as  residential 
colleges,  where  instruction  in  Theology  was  mingled  with 
general  education.  The  greatest  theologians  of  America 
studied  and  taught  in  these  institutions. 

The  American  colonists  brought  with  them  their 
ministers.  At  first  there  were  more  than  were  needed. 
But  subsequently  ministers  could  not  be  secured  from 
the  mother  country  in  sufficient  numbers,  and  educational 
institutions  began  to  be  organised. 

The  first  college  was  that  of  Harvard^  founded  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts  (1636) ;  the  second,  that  of  William  and  Mary, 
opened  at  Wilhamsburg,  Virginia  (1693) ;  the  third,  Yale  College, 
located  at  first  in  Saybrook  (1701),  but  afterwards  removed  to 
New  Haven,  Connecticut  (1718).  The  Log  College  of  William 
Tennent  *  was  the  basis  for  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  opened  at 
Ehzabethtown  (1646),  removed  to  Newark  (1647),  and  finally 
established  at  Princeton  (1757).  King's  College,  founded  in  New 
York  City  by  royal  charter  in  1754,  was  reorganised  as  Columbia 
after  the  Revolution  (1787).  Rhode  Island  College  (opened  in 
1764)  took  the  name  of  Brown  in  1804.  In  1749  the  foundations 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  were  laid  at  Philadelphia. 
Dartmouth  was  opened  at  Hanover,  New  Hampshire  (1770),  and 
Williams  at  WiUiamstown,  Massachusetts  (1793).  Cokeshury 
College  was  organised  by  the  Methodists  at  Abingdon,  Maryland, 
in  1787,  and  removed  to  Baltimore  in  1795,  but  was  finally 
abandoned  (1796)  because  of  repeated  losses  by  fire. 


1   Vide   Briggs,    American   Presbyferianisvi,   pp.    186  seg.,    240,   242, 
304  seq.  2   Vide  p.  173. 

3  Vide  Briegs,  American  Preshyterianisvi,  p.  261. 

4  Vide  p.  170. 

VOL.  II.  M 


172    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

The  chief  purpose  of  these  colleges  was  to  train  a 
Christian  ministry.  Thus  Palfrey  says,  with  reference 
to  Harvard  : 

'  The  course  of  study  [at  Harvard],  adopted  from  the  contem- 
poraneous practice  of  the  EngHsh  Universities,  consisted  of 
Latin  and  Greek  (in  which  some  proficiency  was  required  for 
admission) ;  of  logic,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  physics  ;  and 
of  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  divinity, — the  forming  of  a 
learned  ministry  being  a  main  object  of  the  institution.'  ^ 

Woolsey  writes  with  reference  to  Yale  : 

'  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  system  pursued  by  the 
earlier  teachers  rested  upon  logic  and  theology,  and  presupposed 
that  the  students  would  choose  the  clerical  profession,  rather  than 
the  offices  of  civic  life.  To  this  cause  is  to  be  ascribed  the  part 
which  the  study  of  Hebrew  played  for  a  considerable  period.'  ^ 

Fisher  also  says  of  Yale  : 

'  Its  chief  design  was  to  furnish  the  churches  with  competent 
ministers  of  the  Gospel.  For  a  long  time  theological  studies, 
including  the  Hebrew  language,  held  a  prominent  place  in  the 
undergraduate  course.  The  President  was  a  teacher  of  Divinity, 
and  the  first  professorship  created  was  in  that  department.'  ^ 

The  American  colleges  produced  two  great  theologians : 
Jonathan  Dickinson  and  Jonathan  Edwards,  who  remain 
as  the  best  exponents  of  the  theology  of  the  eighteenth 
century.* 

(1)  Dickinson  (1688-1747),  the  great  representative  American 
Presbyterian  of  the  Colonial  period,  was  trained  at  Yale,  took 
charge  of  several  congregations  in  Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey, 
and  the  neighbourhood,  and  became  the  first  president  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey.  The  charter  for  that  college  was  obtained 
through  his  efforts,  and  it  was  opened  at  his  house.  No  better 
man  could  have  been  found  to  lay  the  foundation  of  higher 

1  Palfrey,  History  of  New  England,  1860,  ii.  p.  48. 

2  Woolse.y,  An  Historical  Discourse  pronounced  before  the  Graduates 
of  Yale  College,  1850,  p.  57. 

3  Vide  Fisher,  A  Discourse,  Commemorative  of  the  History  of  the 
Church  of  Christ  in  Yale  College,  1858,  pp.  36  seq. 

•*  Vide  Briggs,  American  Presbytertanism,  pp.  176  seq.,  216,  260  seq.y 
306. 


en.  m.]    SEVENTEENTH -EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    173 

education  for  the  Presbyterians  in  America.  He  was  head  and 
shoulders  above  his  brethren  in  the  ministry  in  intellectual  and 
moral  endowments,  the  recognised  leader  in  all  the  crises  of  the 
Church.  It  is  due  chiefly  to  him  that  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  America  was  not  split  up  into  fragments,  perpetuating  the 
difiFerences  of  Presbyterians  in  the  mother  countries  of  Great 
Britain,  and  the  several  parties  in  those  countries. 

(2)  Jonathan  Edwards  (1703-1758)  is  the  greatest  divine 
America  has  yet  produced.  He  found  no  equal  in  Great  Britain 
in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  He  was  at 
once  recognised  as  the  teacher  of  the  Calvinistic  Methodists  of 
Great  Britain,  and  has  become  the  master  spirit  in  theology  to 
the  Presbyterian  and  Congregational  world  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  in  Scotland  as  well  as  in  England  and  America. 
Through  him  the  theology  of  the  school  of  Saumur  first  came 
into  prominence  in  America.  Edwards  studied  at  Yale,  served 
as  pastor  to  Congregational  churches  at  Northampton  and  Stock- 
bridge,  Massachusetts,  and  was  made  president  of  the  College 
of  New  Jersey  shortly  before  his  death.  Under  his  ministry 
occurred  the  Grexit  Awakening,  a  series  of  revivals  (1734-1735, 
1740-1741)  which  spread  through  a  great  part  of  New  England. 
The  most  notable  writings  of  Edwards  were  his  doctrinal  sermons, 
his  dissertations  on  the  Nature  of  True  Virtue,  the  Freedom  of  the 
Will,  the  Religious  Affections,  and  Original  Sin,  and  a  History  of 
Redemption.  His  pupils  included  such  theologians  as  Joseph 
Bellamy  (f  1790),  Samuel  Hopkins  (f  1803),  and  his  own  son,  the 
younger  Jonathan  (f  1801). 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  a 
great  theological  battle  about  education  for  the  ministry 
in  the  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Churches,  which  had 
much  to  do  with  the  division  between  the  Old  Side  and 
the  NeAv  in  the  Presbyterian  Church.  A  learned  ministry 
and  a  devout  ministry  were  put  in  antithesis  in  the 
struggle.  Early  in  the  following  century  it  became 
evident  that  there  must  be  provision  for  a  more  thorough 
training  in  theology. 

12.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  Nonconformists  of 
England  began  to  establish  public  colleges  for  the  training 
of  their  ministry. 


174    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

After  the  Restoration  and  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662), 
the  Nonconformists  of  England,  excluded  from  the 
English  universities,  could  only  train  their  ministers  in 
private  academies,  or  send  them  to  the  universities  of 
other  countries.  There  were,  however,  a  number  of 
private  academies  conducted  by  eminent  men  in  different 
places  all  through  the  seventeenth  century,  where  the 
principles  of  Nonconformity  were  taught,  and  students 
received  excellent  practical  training  and  good  discipline. 
Some  of  the  best  of  the  students  went  for  higher  training 
to  the  universities  of  the  Continent. 

The  Nonconformist  academies  trained  such  theologians  as : 
(1)  Matthew  Henry  (f  1714),  a  pupil  of  Thomas  Doolittle  at 
Islington,  and  author  of  Expositions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, in  which  the  BibUcal  exegesis  of  Puritanism  attained  on 
the  practical  side  its  highest  mark  ;  ^  (2)  Isaac  Watts  (f  1748), 
student  at  the  academy  in  Stoke  Newington,  called  by  Mont- 
gomery '  the  inventor  of  English  hymns  '  ;  '  (3)  John  Taylor 
of  Norwich  (j  1761),  pupil  of  Thomas  Dixon  at  Whitehaven, 
disciple  of  Samuel  Clarke  '  and  the  philosopher  Locke  (f  1704), 
and  author  of  a  Paraphrase  on  Romans,  a  Hebrew  Concordance, 
The  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Original  Sin,  and  other  important 
doctrinal  works. 

After  the  Revolution  of  1688  the  Nonconformists 
began  to  plan  for  the  training  of  their  ministry  in  public 
colleges.  In  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century  a 
number  of  such  colleges  were  founded,  including  :  * 

(1)  Homerton  College,  established  in  London  (c.  1744)  by  the 
combination  of  two  earher  schools,  the  Fund  Academy  (c.  1695) 
and  the  Academy  of  the  King's  Head  Society  (c.  1730).  The  first 
teachers  of  theology  in  the  Fund  Academy  included  :  Thomas 
Goodwin  (1696),  son  of  the  famous  Thomas  (f  1680),  leader  of  the 
Independents  in  the  Westminster  Assembly ;  Isaac  Chauncey 
(1701-1712),  son  of  Charles  (f  1672),  the  second  president  of 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  467. 

2  Vide  Uhristlieb,  '  Watts,'  in  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia,  1st  ed. 
s  Vide  p.  176. 

*  Vide  Calendar  of  the  Congregational  Colleges  of  England  and  Wales, 
1879,  pp.  11  seq. 


CH.  m.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    175 

Harvard  College  ;   and  Thomas  Ridgley  (1712-1734),  author  of  a 
Body  of  Divinity. 

(2)  Coward  College,  founded  by  the  liberality  of  a  London 
merchant  in  1738,  and  under  the  instruction  of  Philip  Doddridge 
until  his  death  (t  1751).  Doddridge,  a  pupil  of  Samuel  Clarke 
and  John  Jennings,  published  a  Family  Expositor,  or  practical 
commentary  on  the  Bible,  which  was  of  great  service  to  the 
churches. 

(3)  Highbury  College,  established  in  1778  by  an  evangelical 
society  to  promote  the  evangehcal  movement.  These  three 
colleges  were  united  in  1850  as  (4)  New  College,  which  became  the 
chief  Congregational  seminary  of  England. 

(5)  Western  College  was  founded  at  Plymouth  by  the  Congre- 
gational Fund  Board  (1752).  (6)  Rotherham  College  was  estab- 
lished in  Yorkshire  (1756);  (7)  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon's 
College  at  Cheshunt  (1768) ;  and  (8)  Airedale  College  at  Bradford 
(1800). 

A  number  of  other  Congregational  colleges  were 
founded  in  the  nineteenth  century,  but  all  were  of  the 
same  type.  In  the  older  academies  the  course  was 
usually  a  mixed  course  of  theology  and  philosophy, 
extending  over  four  years  ;  in  the  colleges  the  course 
was  one  of  five  years,  two  in  philosophy  and  three  in 
theology. 

The  Presbyterian  (Unitarian)  Board  founded  Carmarthen 
College  in  1697 ;  the  Congregational  Fund  Board  Brecon  College 
in  1757,  after  the  separation  from  the  Presbyterians.  The 
Baptists  established  similar  institutions ;  so  also  the  Wesleyans 
and  other  bodies. 

All  of  these  schools  were  of  the  same  type,  offering  a 
preparatory  philosophical  course  and  a  theological 
course — essentially  the  same  type  as  the  Tridentine 
Seminaries.  These  English  Seminaries  exerted  upon 
the  Nonconformists  an  influence  similar  to  that  of  the 
Tridentine  Seminaries  upon  the  Roman  Catholics. 

There  was  a  constant  irritation  between  the  men 
trained  practically  in  the  seminaries  and  the  men 
trained  theoretically  in  the  universities.  The  ministers 
trained    in    the    universities    of    Holland    were    either 


176    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Scholastics,  or  advocates  of  the  Covenant  Theology. 
Those  trained  in  the  Scottish  universities  were  either 
Scholastics,  or  men  influenced  by  the  Free  Thought  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

Early  in  that  century  the  Nonconformists  of  Britain  began  to 
be  agitated  by  the  spirit  of  inquiry  that  was  already  active  in 
the  Church  of  England  in  William  Whiston  (f  1752),  Samuel 
Clarke  (f  1729),  and  others.  Thomas  Emlyn  (f  1743),  a  Presby- 
terian minister  of  Dublin,  was  the  first  to  advocate  Semi- Arianism. 
He  was  removed  from  his  associate  ministry  in  1702.  James 
Pierce  of  Exeter  adopted  similar  opinions  from  Clarke  and 
Whiston  (c.  1717).  The  ministers  of  Exeter  appealed  to  London 
for  advice.  The  London  ministers  debated  the  matter  for  a 
long  time.  In  1719  they  divided  on  the  subject  of  subscription. 
The  majority  were  opposed  to  subscription.  The  minority 
separated  and  subscribed  to  the  first  of  the  Articles  of  Religion 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  to  the  fifth  and  sixth  Questions 
of  the  Westminster  Shorter  Catechism.  The  Presbyterians  were 
chiefly  non-subscribers ;  ^  the  CongregationaHsts  chiefly  sub- 
scribers.^ This  division  resulted  in  the  gradual  departure  of  the 
English  Presbyterians  from  the  Westminster  Faith  until  the 
whole  body  became  Unitarian.  The  Congregational ists,  how- 
ever, remained  orthodox,  and  to  a  great  extent  reactionary. 

The  same  conflict  arose  in  Scotland  over  the  case  of  John 
Simson  (f  1740),  professor  of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, who  sought  to  reconcile  Christianity  with  modern  thought 
within  the  sphere  of  historical  Christianity,  but  was  regarded  as 
compromised  in  an  anti-trinitarian  direction,  and  so  warned  by 
the  General  Assembly  in  1717.^  His  views  continued  to  excite 
the  Church  of  Scotland  until  his  final  suspension  in  1729. 

Steadily  but  surely  the  universities  of  Scotland,  as 
well  as  those  of  England,  came  into  the  hands  of  re- 
presentatives of  Free  Thought,  who  were  named 
Moderates  ;  and  these  maintained  their  supremacy  into 
the  nineteenth  century.  The  Scholastics,  who  at  fijst 
had  succeeded  in  driving  out  the  men  of  piety,  the 
narrow  men,  as  they  were  called,  under  the  leadership 

1  Fifty  non-subscribers  to  twenty-six  subscribers  and  nine  neutrals. 

2  Tweuty-three  sul)scribers  to  seven  non-subscribers  and  five  neutrals. 
'  Vide  Briggs,  T/ieoloyical  Symbolics,  p.  243. 


CH.  ui.]    SEVENTEENTH  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    177 

of  the  Erskines,  were  at  last  themselves  overcome  by 
Moderatism. 

13.  The  revival  of  the  study  of  Theology  took  place 
gradually  in  Germany  during  the  eighteenth  century  by  the 
introduction  of  the  new  learning,  especially  as  based  on  the 
inductive  method  and  the  inductive  sciences,  and  ujider 
the  influence  of  the  Universities  of  Halle  and  Gottingen. 

The  older  universities  resisted  the  movement  so  long 
as  they  could.  Some  of  them  became  extinct ;  others 
were  removed  and  united  to  newer  foundations  ;  others 
gradually  adopted  the  new  methods.  The  first  modern 
university  was  that  of  Halle,  which  was  founded  in  1694, 
under  the  same  influences  as  those  which  produced  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  Berlin  (1700),  by  the  instru- 
mentality of  Leibnitz  and  his  associates.  The  university 
of  Halle  gained  its  character  under  the  influence  of  the 
two  scholars  who  were  its  chief  teachers  at  the  beginning  : 
Thomasius  (f  1728),  a  jurist,  rationalistic  in  tendency  ; 
and  Franckcy^  a  theologian  and  a  Pietist.  Both  were 
opposed  to  the  scholastic  methods  and  slavish  imitation 
of  the  classic  writers  which  generally  prevailed,  and 
they  were  united  against  these  tendencies.  But  they  also 
represented  other  opposing  tendencies  that  soon  came 
into  conflict.  This  conflict  came  to  a  head  in  connection 
with  the  philosopher.  Christian  Wolff  (f  1754),  whose 
more  pronounced  Rationalism  brought  him  into  trouble. 
He  was  expelled  from  the  University  of  Halle  (1723), 
but  was  called  to  Marburg,  and  his  influence  constantly 
increased.  In  1740  he  was  recalled  to  Halle  in  triumph, 
and  the  victory  finally  won  for  freedom  of  scholarship. 
Upon  that  principle  the  University  of  Gottingen  was 
founded  in  1734.  These  two  institutions  now  became 
the  leading  universities  of  Germany,  and  so  remained 
throughout  the  eighteenth  century. 

1  Vide  p.  167. 


178    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

At  Halle  the  theological  professors  reverted  from  the 
Scholastic  Theology  to  the  Positive  Theology.  They 
devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  in  the 
original  languages,  to  the  study  of  the  Lutheran  sym- 
bolical books,  and  to  the  practice  of  piety. 

Among  the  theologians  of  Halle  were:  (1)  Johann  Heinrich 
MichapJis  (f  1738),  the  Hebrew  scholar ;  (2)  his  nephew,  colla- 
borator and  successor  at  Halle,  Christian  Benedict  Michaelis 
(t  1764) ;  (3)  Baumgarten,  who  taught  at  Halle  from  1730  until 
his  death  in  1757,  and  exerted  great  influence  through  his  works 
on  Church  History  and  Doctrine  ;  his  disciple  (4)  Semler  (f  1791), 
a  Bibhcal  scholar,  and  the  channel  through  which  the  historical 
method  of  interpretation  made  its  way  into  Lutheran  Germany.^ 
Through  these  theologians  Halle  became  distinguished  for 
Biblical  and  symbolical  scholarship. 

The  first  great  theological  teacher  of  Gdttingen  was  (1)  Mos- 
heim  (t  1755),  formerly  of  Helmstadt,  a  scholar  of  encyclopaedic 
learning  and  a  preacher  of  great  eloquence,  who  contributed 
important  works  to  almost  all  the  departments  of  theology,  and 
made  Church  History  a  new  discipline.  He  was  followed  by 
(2)  Johann  David  Michaelis  (t  1791),  son  of  Christian  Benedict, 
who  produced  Bibhcal  works  of  great  value ;  (3)  Eichhorn 
(t  1827),  the  father  of  the  Higher  Criticism,  who  carried  its 
methods  into  the  entire  Old  Testament  with  the  hand  of  a  master, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  views  that  have  been  maintained  ever 
since.^  These  men  made  Gottingen  a  great  seat  of  Bibhcal  and 
historical  scholarship. 

Leipzig  also  became  an  important  centre  of  Bibhcal  study 
through  the  labours  of  Ernesti  (f  1781),  the  chief  of  the  new  era 
of  Bibhcal  interpretation  in  Germany.  Essentially  a  philolo- 
gist rather  than  a  theologian,  he  began  at  the  foundation  of 
interpretation,  grammatical  exegesis,  and  placed  it  in  such  a 
position  before  the  world  that  it  has  ever  since  maintained  its 
fundamental  importance.* 

In  Austria  and  Southern  Germany  also  the  new 
methods  gradually  conquered  the  old  in  the  Catholic 
universities,  greatly  to  the  mortification  of  the  Jesuits, 
who  were  driven  by  degrees  from  one  institution  after 

1   Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  470. 

3  Vide  Briggs,  ibid.,  pp.  279  ieg.  »  Vide  Briggs,  ibid.,  p.  469, 


CH-m.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    179 

another,  and  from  one  country  after  another,  until  the 
order   was    suppressed    by   the   pope    (1773),   and    its 
influence  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.     So  at  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  Roman  Catholic  and  i^ro- 
testant  scholars  were  more  at  one  than  they  had  been 
since  the  Reformation  ;  ^    and,  it  may  be  added    than 
they  have  been  since  that  time.     But  the  enlightened 
rulers   of   Austria   and   Bavaria,   however   much   they 
improved  the  universities,   did  great  miscfliief  by  the 
destruction  of  the  Catholic  seminaries,  or  the  mergmg 
of  the  smaller  in  larger  seminaries,  thereby  destroying 
their  character  and  making  them  poor  copies  of  the 
universities.     In    Protestant    Germany,    however     and 
so  it  may  be  said  in  Holland  and  S^vatzerland    the 
development  was  more  normal.     The  chief  result  of  the 
reformation  of  the  universities  was  the  deliverance  of 
theological  instruction  from  bondage  to  the  Church  and 
to  the  State,  and  the  estabhshment  of  the  principle  of 
freedom  of  scholarship. 

14  The  revival  of  the  study  of  Theology  extended  all 
along  the  line  of  theological  scholarship,  and  resulted  m 
new  theological  learning,  the  opening  up  of  numerous 
new  fields  of  theological  study,  and  a  zealous  and  enthusi- 
astic pursuit  of  these,  in  which  all  countries  began  to  take 

%he  gain  may  be  said  to  have  been  in  these  four 
particulars  : 

m  Freedom  of  instruction,  over  against  limitation  by  authority. 

(2)  The  new  philosophy  of  Wolff  and  Kant,  based  on  Cosmo- 
locv  and  Physics,  over  against  Aristotle.         ,    .^  ^.        .  ^     ^t 

(3)  The  new  Humanism,  in  place  of  the  imitative  study  of 
the  aassics:  a  critical  historical  study.  *  t    +•    2 

(4)  The  use  of  the  modern  languages  in  place  of  Latin. 

1  Vide  Paulsen,  Gesch.  des  gdchrten  Unterrichts,  ii.  p.  123. 
«  Paulsen,  ii.  p,  145. 


180    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Several  new  theological  disciplines  were  opened  up, 
especially  at  Halle. 

I.  The  discipline  of  Theological  Encyclopcedia  was 
first  established  by  Mursinna  ^  of  Halle  (1764). 

II.  The  foundations  for  the  discipline  of  Symbolics 
were  laid  by  Baumgarten  ^  of  Halle  (1750)  ;  and  G.  J. 
Planck  ^  united  Symbolics  with  Polemics  (1796)  in  a 
broader  scheme.'* 

III.  In  Biblical  Study  the  gain  may  be  given  with 
more  detail  : 

A.  The  Text.  In  England  John  Mill  issued  a  critical  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  (1707),  and  was  assailed  by  unthinking 
men,  who  preferred  pious  ignorance  to  a  correct  text  of  the  New 
Testament ;  but  he  was  sturdily  defended  by  the  great  Cam- 
bridge scholar,  Richard  Bentley  (f  1742),  the  father  of  the  Higher 
Criticism  in  England.  Bishop  Lowth  (f  1787)  called  the  atten- 
tion of  scholars  to  the  necessity  of  emending  the  Massoretic  text 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  discerned  and  set  forth  the  principles 
of  Hebrew  poetry  (1753-1778).  Kennicott  (f  1783)  collated  a 
large  number  of  Hebrew  manuscripts  for  bis  monumental  work 
on  the  state  of  the  printed  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament, 
with  various  readings  (1753-1780).  On  the  Continent  the  work 
of  Mill  was  continued  by  Bengel  (1725-1734),  Wetstein  {11 51-11 52), 
and  Grieshach  (1785-1793).  Lowth's  work  was  carried  on  in 
Germany  especially  by  Michaelis  of  Gottingen  (1770)  and  by 
Koppe  (1779-1780).* 

B.  The  Higher  Criticism.  Astruc,  a  French  physician,  dis- 
covered the  several  documents  of  the  Pentateuch  in  1753.  His 
work  was  taken  to  Germany  by  Jerusalem  (1762).  Eichhom  of 
Gottingen  came  independently  to  the  same  conclusion  in  1779. 
The  poet  Herder  (f  1803)  first  caught  the  Oriental  spirit  in  his 
Geist  der  hehrdischen  Poesie  (1782-1783).  All  these  results  were 
combined  by  Eichhom  (1780)  in  the  discipline  of  Higher  Criticism.^ 


1  Vide  Mursinna,  Primce  linece  encyclopcedice  theologiccr.. 

2  Vide  Baumgarten,  Kurze  Beg  riff"  der  theologischen  Streitigkeiten. 

3  Vide  Planck,  Abriss  einer  historischen  und  vergleichenden  Dar- 
stellung  der  dogmatischen  Systeme  unserer  verschiedeiien  christlichen 
Haup  tpartheyen. 

4  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  24  seq. 

6  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  22')  seq. 
«  Vide  Briggs,  ibid.,  pp.  278  seq. 


CH.  m.]    SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES    181 

C.  Biblical  Interpretation.  Ernesti  of  Leipzig  applied  to  the 
Bible  the  principles  employed  in  the  interpretation  of  the  ancient 
classics  (1761).  Semler  of  Halle  urged  the  importance  of  historical 
interpretation  (1760-1769).  These  scholars  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  grammatico-historical  school  of  Bibhcal  study.^ 

D.  Biblical  History  was  studied  in  England  by  Prideaux 
(1716-1718),  Shuckford  (1727-1728),  Stackhouse  (1732),  and 
Paley  (1790) ;  in  France  by  Basnage  (1704-1706)  and  Calmet 
(1722) ;  in  Holland  by  Reland  (1704-1708)  and  Spannheim 
{Opera,  1701-1703);  in  Switzerland  by  Hess  (1768-1788);  in 
Germany  by  Waehner  (1701-1703),  B^iddeus  (1715-1718),  and 
especially  by  Michaelis  (1769- 1775). ^ 

E.  Biblical  Theology.  The  foundations  of  this  discipline  were 
first  laid  by  Gabler  of  Jena  in  1787.  There  was,  however,  pre- 
paratory work  done  by  Zacharid  of  Halle,  and  Gottingen  (1771- 
1775),  on  the  Pietistic  side.  Ammon  also  published  works  on 
Biblical  Theology  from  the  Rationalistic  side  (1792- 1801  ).3 

IV.  Church  History  before  Mosheim  had  been  the 
handmaid  of  Polemic  Theology.  The  great  polemic 
histories  were  the  Protestant  Magdeburger  Centurien,^ 
and  the  reply  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Baronius  in  his 
Annates  ecclesiastici ,^  continued  by  Raynaldus,  Theiner, 
and  others.  The  British  historical  writers,  like  Ussher 
and  Bingham,^  were  chiefly  interested  in  antiquities  and 
institutions.  Calixtus  had  vainly  tried  to  infuse  a  more 
irenic  spirit  and  objective  method.  Mosheim  was  the 
first  to  give  Church  History  its  position  as  an  indepen- 
dent, strictly  objective,  historical  discipline  in  his  Institu- 
tiones  historice  ecclesiasticce  (1755).  And  so  there  began 
a  detailed  and  thorough  research  into  various  fields  of 
historical  investigation,  which  gradually  resulted  in  the 
outlining  of  many  sub-departments  of  Church  History. 
Schrock,  a  pupil  of  Mosheim,  wrote  a  very  elaborate 
Church  History  in  forty- five  volumes   (1768-1812),  in 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Eoly  Scripture,  pp.  469  seq. 

*  Vide  Bri.irgs,  ibid.,  pp.  490  seq. 

«  Vide  Briggs,  ibid.,  pp.  575  seq. 

4  13  vols.,  1559-1574.        «  12  vols,,  1588-1607. 

«  Vide  pp.  153-156. 


182    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

which  he  adopted  the  division  of  Church  History  into 
periods,  instead  of  the  older  division  into  centuries.  It 
is  valuable  for  its  information  as  to  sources  ;  but,  as 
Schaff  remarks,  '  Nobody  ever  read  it  through  except 
the  author  and  proof  reader.'  *  The  principles  of 
Mosheim  were  followed  by  G.  W.  F.  Walch,  also  of  Gottin- 
gen  (t  1784),  who  established  the  discipline  of  the  History 
of  Doctrine  and  other  branches  of  Church  History,  such 
as  the  History  of  the  Popes,  of  the  Sects,  and  so  on.  All 
came  into  play,  and  each  department  was  thoroughly 
searched  by  the  investigations.  The  History  of  Christian 
Literature  received  especial  attention  from  such  scholars 
as  Fabricius  (f  1736),  J.  C.  Wolf  (t  1739),  Pfaff  (f  1760), 
and  J.  0.  Walch  (t  1775). 

V.  Dogmatics  was  delivered  from  bondage  to  the 
scholastic  method  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  The 
ancient  conflict  between  Positive  Theology  and  Philo- 
sophical Theology  was  renewed.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
seminaries  and  universities  Positive  Theology  remained 
a  comprehensive  system,  including  both  the  Bible  and 
the  Fathers  ;  but  in  Protestant  universities  Biblical 
Theology  set  forth  the  Theology  of  the  Bible,  and 
Symbolical  Theology  that  of  the  Symbols  of  the  Church. 
Over  against  these  in  the  Catholic  seminaries  was  the 
Scholastic  Theology  in  a  more  chaste  form.  In  Pro- 
testant universities  the  system  of  theology  was  con- 
structed on  the  basis  of  the  various  systems  of  philosophy 
as  these  arose  from  time  to  time  :  at  first  the  Pietistic 
over  against  the  Rational  of  the  school  of  Wolff  ;  then 
the  Kantian,  which  appeared  at  the  close  of  the  period. 

VI.  Practical  Theology.  More  attention  was  given  to 
the  scholarly  or  scientific  side  of  this  department  of 
theology  ;  and  it  was  elaborated  in  Theological  Ency- 
clopaedia into  a  number  of  logically  defined,  separate 
departments,  which  were  studied  by  scholars  in  purely 

1  SchafF,  Theological  Propcedexdics,  p.  300. 


CH.  m.]    SEVEXTEEXTH-EIGHTEENTH  CEXTURIES    183 

scholarly  interests ;  as,  for  instance,  Catecheiics,  Liturgies, 
Church  Law,  and  the  History  of  Preaching.  The  older 
system  of  disputation  and  declamation  gradually  dis- 
appeared from  the  universities.  In  place  of  these  there 
was  established  at  Gottingen  for  the  first  time  a  Pre- 
dig er seminar,  for  practical  exercise  in  preaching  and 
teaching.^ 

1  The  theological  Seminar  of  the  unirersity  for  the  purpose  of  training 
in  theological  investigation  belongs  to  a  later  time,  and  began  in  the 
schools  of  philology  and  philosophy  {vide  p.  187). 


184    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY   IN  THE  NINETEENTH 

CENTURY 

The  eighteenth  century  closed  with  the  storms  of  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  wars  of  Napoleon,  which 
continued  into  the  second  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  With  these  were  also  associated  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution  and  the  establishment  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  wars  of  Napoleon  wrought 
havoc  all  over  Europe,  and  resulted  in  the  destruction 
of  a  large  number  of  universities  and  the  establishment 
of  new  ones.  The  old  universities  were  regarded  as 
scholastic,  pedantic,  and  reactionary  by  the  statesmen 
of  Europe. 

Five  Protestant  universities  either  died  or  were  closed 
up  :  those  of  Erfurt,  Helmstddt,  Binteln,  Didshurg,  and 
Altdorf.  Two  others,  those  of  Wittenberg  and  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  were  combined  with  other  universities ; 
Wittenberg  with  Halle  (1815),  and  Frankfort  with 
Breslau  (1811). 

Ten  Catholic  institutions  perished  ;  and  one,  that  of 
Ingolstadt,  was  eventually  absorbed  by  the  new  univer- 
sity at  Munich.  Those  that  perished  were  :  Cologne, 
Mayence,  Treves,  Paderhorn,  Fulda,  Bamberg,  Dillingen, 
Linz,  Salzburg,  and  Olmiitz  ;  among  them  some  of  the 
most  famous  schools  of  olden  times. 

Several  new  universities  were  established  :    those  of 


en.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  185 

Berlin    (1810),   Breskiu    (1811),   and   Bonn    (1818),   by 
Prussia  ;   and  that  of  Munich  (1826),  by  Bavaria. 

1.  The  new  wiiversiiies  took  the  lead  in  the  educational 
movements  of  the  nineteenth  century.  But  they  received 
their  impulse,  not  only  from  the  new  spirit  of  the  revolu- 
tionary epoch,  but  also  from  the  scholars  of  the  older  uni- 
versities, especially  those  of  Halle,  Gottingen,  and  Konigs- 
herg. 

At  Halle  the  new  theological  learning  was  chiefly 
practical  Biblical  scholarship  ;  at  Gottingen  it  bore  fruit 
in  the  fields  of  Church  History  and  Biblical  Criticism. 
Konigsberg  produced  the  first  in  a  series  of  great  philo- 
sophers—Za?i^,  followed  hy  Fichte  {flSU), Hegel  (tl831), 
Schelling  (f  1854),  and  their  associates  and  successors — 
who  undermined  and  well-nigh  destroyed  the  ancient 
philosophical  forms  in  which  Christian  doctrine  had 
been  framed.^ 

Immarmel  Kant  (1724-1804)  was  trained  at  Konigsberg,  and 
taught  philosophy  and  other  subjects  there  for  over  forty  years 
(1755-1796).  Among  his  great  works  may  be  mentioned  his 
Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft  (1781,  1787),  Kritik  der  praktischen 
Vernunft  (1788),  Die  Religion  innerhalb  der  Grenzen  der  blossen 
Vernunft  (1^93),  and  Die  Metaphysik  der  Sitten  (1797).  Kant 
insisted  upon  a  religion  in  accordance  with  the  practical  reason — 
a  religion  of  morality,  and  upon  an  ethical  interpretation  of 
Scripture  and  history.  His  views  produced  a  profound  impres- 
sion at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  ;  and  several  prominent  theologians  adopted 
his  principles,  among  them:  Tieftrunk^  of  Halle  (1791-1795); 
Ammon^  of  Gottingen  and  Erlangen  (1797) ;  Stdudlin,^  also  of 
Gottingen  (1800) ;  and  J.  W.  Schmid^  of  Jena  (1797).  But,  as 
Gieseler  states,  '  the  philosophy  of  Kant  did  not  permanently 
maintain  this   influence  in  theology.'  *     It  was  not  Ids    philo- 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  p.  245. 

2  Vide  Tiettrunk,  Censur  des  christlichen  jirotesiantischcn  Lehrhi-griffs. 

*  Vide  Animon,  Enhourf  einer  wissfTischa/tlich-2>ractischen  Theoluyie. 

*  Vide  Stau<lliii,  Dogmatik  und  Itogmengeschichte. 
s  Vide  J.  W.  Schmid,  Uebcr  christliche  ReUgion. 

«  Gieseler,  v.  p.  323. 


186    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Bophic  principles  that  prevailed ;    but  his  critical  method  of 
investigation,  which  became  characteristic  of  the  age. 

2.  The  University  of  Berlin  became  the  great  theological 
centre  of  Germany ;  and  a  series  of  great  teachers  of 
Theology  and  Philosophy,  as  well  as  of  all  other  branches 
of  learning,  has  continued  there  all  through  the  century  and 
until  the  present  time. 

Schleiermacher  was  raised  up  to  be  the  father  of  the 
modern  German  evangelical  theology.  He  began  to 
build  the  structure  of  modern  theology  in  the  true 
mystic  spirit  on  the  religious  feeling,  apprehending  Jesus 
Christ  as  Saviour.  A  series  of  intellectual  giants  carried 
on  his  work,  such  as  Neander,  Tholuck,  Rothe,  Muller, 
and  /.  A.  Dorner.  These  led  German  Theology  back 
to  the  position  of  the  Protestant  reformers.^ 

Friedrich  Schleiermacher  (1768-1834),  the  great  reformer  of 
theology  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  studied  at 
Halle,  and  in  1793  began  to  teach  and  to  preach  at  Berlin.  After 
more  than  a  decade  he  went  to  teach  in  the  University  of  Halle, 
and  in  1806  was  made  full  professor  there.  It  was  not  long, 
however,  before  he  returned  to  Berlin,  where  he  became  one  of 
the  first  professors  in  the  new  university  (1810),  and  dean  of 
the  theological  faculty.  Schleiermacher  combined  the  critical 
method  with  evangehcal  piety.  He  reorganised  theological 
study,  the  disciphne  of  Encyclopcedia,  the  system  of  theology, 
and  enriched  all  branches  of  theological  learning.  His  many 
influential  writings  include :  Reden  ilher  die  Religion,  Kurze 
Darstellung  des  theologischen  Studiums,  and  Christlicher  Glaube 
nach  den  Grundsdtzen  der  evangelischen  Kirche, 

3.  Berlin  was  sustained  by  the  newer  universities  of 
Bonn  and  Breslau,  and  also  by  those  of  the  previous  century, 
Halle  and  Gottingen  ;  and  graduxilly  all  of  the  universities 
adopted  the  newer  methods  of  theological  study. 

These  methods  were  :  (1)  Theological  investigation  : 
research  over  the  whole  field  of  theology.  This  was 
promoted,  not  only  by  the  stimulation,  through  lectures, 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  158. 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  187 

of  professors  who  themselves  were  engaged  in  research, 
but  also  by  the  establishment  of  Seminars  for  the  special 
training  of  the  more  advanced  students. 

The  earliest  Seminar  was  one  in  Philology,  established  at 
Halle,  by  F.  A.  Wolf,  in  1787.  Such  a  Seminar  was  opened  at 
Berlin  in  1812  ;  one  for  Natural  Science  was  founded  at  Bonn 
in  1825  ;  and  an  historical  Seminar  at  Konigsberg  in  1832.  In 
the  theological  Seminar  conducted  by  I.  A.  Dorner  at  Berlin, 
that  great  scholar  is  said  to  have  *  developed  his  highest  quahties 
as  a  teacher  of  youth.'  ^ 

(2)  A  comprehensive  training,  by  a  large  number  of 
professors  (ordinary  and  extraordinary  professors,  and 
licentiates),  covering  the  whole  field  of  theology  ;  and 
in  several  kinds  of  courses  (ordinary,  private,  and  most 
private). 

The  number  of  full  professors  in  the  theological  faculty  of  the 
German  university  at  the  present  time  is  usually  five  ;  but  some 
universities  have  a  larger  faculty,  and  those  of  Berlin  and  Bonn 
number  ten.  The  number  of  Ausserordentliche  Professoren  and 
of  Privatdozenten  varies.  The  department  of  theology  is  usually 
divided  into  5  sections,  embracing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
Church  History,  Systematic  and  Practical  Theology.  The  course 
may  be  extended  from  three  to  five  or  more  years,  and  divided 
between  several  universities.  Training  for  the  practical  work  of 
the  ministry  must  be  sought  at  a  Prediger seminar,  or  in  service  as 
pastor's  assistant.^ 

4.  The  revival  of  the  study  of  Theology  was  not  confined 
to  Germany,  hut  extended  into  other  countries.  It  was 
generally  characterised  by  the  spirit  of  free  theological 
investigation,  and  led  to  the  organisation  of  a  large  number 
of  new  theological  disciplines,  such  as  Biblical  Theology, 
Symbolics,  Irenics,  and  Theological  Encydopcedia.  Among 
Roman  Catholics  it  became  a  revival  of  Positive  Theology 
and  of  Patristic. 

1  Siraon,  '  Isaac  August  Dorner,'  in  Presbyterian  Review,  October  1887, 
vol.  viii.  p.  587. 

2  For  further  details  vide  W.  A,  Brown,  Theological  Education,  in 
Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  v.  pp.  589  seq. 

VOL.  II.  N 


188    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY      [pt.  n. 

Great  Britain  and  America,  yes,  France,  Holland, 
Switzerland  and  the  Scandinavian  countries,  were  de- 
pendent upon  German  Theology  all  through  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  reason  for  this  dependence  was 
that  German  scholars  ranged  over  the  entire  field  of 
theology  with  freedom  of  scholarship  both  to  investi- 
gate and  to  write  and  teach.  But  British  and  American 
Theology  had  its  own  peculiar  principles  and  methods, 
and  its  own  work  to  perform.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
century  the  tide  of  thought,  which  has  ebbed  and  flowed 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent  several  times 
since  the  Reformation,  began  to  turn,  and  to  set  strongly 
in  our  direction.^ 

It  is  impossible  to  cover  the  entire  field  of  modern 
theological  study  in  a  few  pages.  Only  a  few  of  the 
most  important  achievements  of  the  nineteenth  century 
can  be  referred  to  here. 

5.  Theological  Encyclopcedia,  first  established  as  a 
theological  discipline  by  Mursinna  of  Halle,^  was  rewgan- 
ised  by  Schleiermacher,  and  further  developed  by  other 
scholars. 

Schleiermacher,  in  his  Kurze  Darstellung  des  theolo- 
gischen  Studiums  (1811,  1830),  reorganised  the  discipline 
of  Theological  Encyclopaedia,  and  gave  to  it  a  more 
thorough  exposition. 

He  was  followed  by  a  large  number  of  scholars,  such  as: 
Rosenkranz  {IS31);  H agenbach  {IS33) ;  Earless  {1831) ;  Pelt 
(1843);  Lange  (1877);  Hofmann  (1879)  and  Rothe  (1880) 
in  posthumous  works;  Rdbiger  (1880);  Heinrici  (18913).  ^ 
Among  Roman  Catholic  scholars  may  be  mentioned  Klee  (1832) ; 
Staudenmaier  (1834,  1840);  Wirtmiiller  (1874);  and  Kihn 
(1892).     The  chief  German  works    now  in  use    are   those  of 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  p.  158. 

2  Vide  p.  180. 

'  August  Dorner's  Orundriss  der  Encyklopddie  der  Theologie  appeared 
in  1901. 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  189 

Hagenhach  and  Kihn.^  Less  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
subject  in  other  countries.  I  may  refer,  however,  to  the  works 
of  Kienlen  (1842),  and  Martin  (1883),  for  France;  those  of 
Clarisse  (1832),  Hofsfede  de  Groot  and  Pareau  (1851),  and  Kuyper 
(1894;  English,  1898),  for  Holland;  those  of  Hannah  (1875), 
Drumtnond  (1884),  and  Cave  (1886,  1896),  for  Great  Britain; 
those  of  M'Cliniock  (1873),  Crooks  and  Hurst  (on  the  basis  of 
Hagenbach,  1884,  1894),  and  iScAo^  (1892-1893),  for  the  United 
States.* 

6.  There  was  a  great  revival  of  Biblical  study  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  Biblical  scholar- 
ship assumed  the  importance  that  it  had  in  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  Biblical  studies  were 
neglected.  But  in  the  second  half  of  the  latter  century 
there  was  a  great  change,  and  Biblical  studies  came  to 
the  front.3  Important  work  was  done  in  many  depart- 
ments : 

(1)  The  Biblical  Languages.*  The  iYe&rew;  language  was  studied 
especially  by  Gesenius  of  Halle  and  Rodiger  of  Berlin.  Their 
work  was  reproduced  by  Edward  Robinson  in  the  United  States 
and  by  Davidson  in  Great  Britain,  and  was  carried  on  in  the 
New  Hebrew  Lexicon  (1906)  by  Francis  Broivn,  S.  R.  Driver,  and 
C.  A.  Briggs.  The  study  of  Hebrew  grammar  was  greatly 
advanced  in  Germany  by  Gesenius,  Hupfeld  and  Kaufzsch  of 
Halle,  Bottcher  of  Dresden,  Ewald  of  Gottingen,  Stade  of  Giessen, 
and  K'dnig  of  Bonn  ;  in  Great  Britain,  chiefly  by  David.^on  and 
Driver  ;  in  the  United  States  by  Nordheimer,  Green,  and  Harper. 

The  Greek  language  was  studied  especially  by  Winer  and 
Buttmann  for  grammar ;  and  for  lexicography  by  Grimm,  whose 


1  Hagenbarh,  Encijkhpcidie  und  Methodologie  der  theologischen  Wis- 
genscha/ten,  1833,  1884io-ii,  ed.  Kautzsch  ;  188912,  ed.  Reischle ;  Kihn, 
Encyklopddie  und  Methodologie  der  Theologie,  1892. 

2  In  the  latter  part  of  the  century  encyclopaedic  works  on  theology 
began  to  be  issued  in  serial  form.  Of  these  the  International  Theological 
Library  (1891- —  ),  founded  and  edited  by  Dr.  Briggs,  is  an  example. 

3  Vide  Briggs,  'Study  of  the  English  Bible,'  in  Presbyterian  Review,  x. 
pp.  295  seq. 

*  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  42  ieq. 


190    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [ft.  n. 

work  was  reproduced  in  the  United  States  by  Edward  Robinson 
of  New  York,  and  Thayer  of  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

(2)  The  Textual  Criticism  ^  of  the  Old  Testament  has  been 
carried  on  chiefly  in  recent  times  in  Germany,  through  the  texts 
of  Baer  and  Delitzsch,  and,  still  more  recently,  of  Kittel,  and  by 
the  work  of  Hermann  Strack  of  Berlin.  In  England,  Davidson 
did  important  work  as  a  forerunner.  But  Ginsburg's  Massora 
is  the  greatest  achievement  since  the  Reformation  in  that  line, 
and  his  Hebrew  Bible  has  great  merit.  The  Polychrome  Bible, 
edited  by  Haupt  of  Baltimore,  and  published  in  parts,  began  to 
appear  in  1894,  many  scholars  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic 
taking  part  in  the  work.  The  text  of  particular  books  was 
studied  by  Wellhausen,  Baeihgen,  Cornill,  S.  R.  Driver,  Kloster- 
mann,  Beer,  and  others.  In  New  Testament  Criticism  there 
was  a  succession  of  great  critics  :  in  Germany,  Scholz  (1830-1836), 
Lachmann  (1831-1850),  Tischendorf,  Gregory,  Gebhardt,  Weiss, 
and  Blass ;  in  England,  Tregelles  (1857-1872),  Scrivener,  West- 
cott,  Hort,  Rendel  Harris,  and  others ;  in  the  United  States, 
Ezra  Abbot  of  Harvard.^ 

(3)  The  Biblical  Versions  have  been  studied  especially  in 
Germany  by  Lagarde  (Botticher)  of  Gottingen,  and  Nestle  of 
Maulbronn  ;  in  Italy  by  Ceriani  of  Milan  ;  in  England  by  Swete 
of  Cambridge,  Wordsworth,  Brooke,  M'Lean,  and  others. 

(4)  The  Higher  Criticism,^  established  by  Eichhorn  of  Gottingen 
in  1780,  has  had  a  long  development  and  a  terrific  struggle.  In 
the  several  stages  of  progress  three  hypotheses  were  unfolded  : 
/.  The  Documentary  Hypothesis  of  Eichhorn  (over  against  the 
Fragmentary  Hypothesis  of  Geddes,  1792,  and  Vater,  1805), 
adopted  among  others  by  Edward  Robinson ;  II.  The  Genetic 
Hypothesis  of  De  Wette,  followed  by  Gesenius,  Bleek,  Ewald, 
Knobel,  Hupfeld,  and  others ;  battled  with  by  Hengstenberg, 
Haver-nick  and  Keil  in  Germany ;  adopted  by  Samuel  Davidson, 
Dean  Stanley,  and,  in  a  measure,  by  Perowne.  III.  The  Develop- 
ment Hypothesis  of  Reuss  (1833),  Vatke,  Graf,  Wellhausen,  Colenso, 
Kalisch,  and  most  modern  scholars. 

The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  New  Testament  is  involved  in  that 
of  the  Old,  but  the  Old  Testament  has  been  the  battleground. 

1  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  226  seq. 

2  [The  work  of  Dr.  Briggs  in  this  department  includes  the  planning 
of  the  International  Critical  Commentary  (1895 — ),  its  editorship  in 
conjunction  with  S.  R.  Driver  and  A.  Plummer,  and  his  own  contribution 
to  the  series.] 

3  Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  282  seq.  ;  also  Higher 
Criticism  of  the  Hexateurh,  1893,  1897. 


CH.  IV.]         iN  THE  NIXETEEXTH  CENTURY  191 

The  conflict  resulted  in  the  Robertson  Smith  case  in  Great  Britain, 
the  Briggs  case  in  the  United  States,  the  Loisy  case  in  France 
and  Italy.^ 

(5)  Historical  Criticism.^  In  this  department  four  hypotheses 
have  been  advanced  :  /.  The  Mythical  Hypothesis  of  G.  L,  Baur 
(1820)  for  the  Old  Testament,  and  of  Strauss  (1835)  for  the  New; 
overcome  by  Ullmann,  Neander,  and  others.  //.  The  Legendary 
Hypothesis,  set  forth  in  Kenan's  Life  of  Jesiis  (1863),  rejected  by 
Keim,  Weiss,  Beyschlag,  Wendt  and  others.  ///.  The  Develop- 
ment Hypothesis,  applied  by  F.  C.  Baur  to  the  New  Testament,  by 
Vatke  to  the  Old  Testament,  under  the  influence  of  the  Hegelian 
philosophy ;  overcome  by  Neander,  Dorner,  Lechler,  Weiss 
and  others.  /  V.  The  Hypothesis  of  the  School  of  Ritschl,  accord- 
ing to  which  Catholic  Christianity  is  rather  Greek  and  Roman 
than  Jewish  ;  and,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  Persian  and  Baby- 
lonian religions  dominate  the  Israelitish. 

(6)  Contemporaneous  History.  The  earHest  writer  in  this 
department  is  Schneckenhurger  of  Bern,  whose  Neutestamentliche 
Zeitgeschichte  appeared  in  1862.  He  was  followed  by  Hausrath 
(1868-1874),  Schiirer,  Holtzmann,  Porter,  and  others,  for  the  New 
Testament.  This  department  was  not  organised  for  the  Old 
Testament,  although  Bertheau  paved  the  way  (1842).  But  a 
large  amount  of  preparatory  work  was  done,  especially  in  the 
study  of  the  archaeology  and  the  history  of  the  other  Oriental 
nations,  by  Schrader,  George  Smith,  Lenormant,  Robertson  Smith, 
Francis  Brovm,  Ebers,  Erman,  Baudissin,  Baethgen,  Tiele, 
M' Curdy,  and  others. 

(7)  To  Biblical  Archceology  contributions  of  value  were  piade 
by  Ewald  (1844),  SaalschUtz  (1855-1856),  Keil,  Benzinger,  Nowack, 
and  other  scholars. 

(8)  Biblical  Geography  was  greatly  advanced  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  Reland  had  summed  up  aU  previous  knowledge  of 
Palestine,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  discipline  in  1714  ; 
but  the  father  of  modern  Biblical  Geography  is  Edward  Robinson, 
who  made  a  personal  investigation  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
Holy  Land  in  two  expeditions  (1837,  1852),  and  pubhshed  the 
results  in  three  monumental  volumes  (1838-1860).  An  impor- 
tant systematic  work  was  written  by  Carl  Ritter  (1848-1855). 
The  work  of  Robinson  was  followed  up  by  Tobler,  De  Saulcy, 

^  [For  these  and  other  cases  vide  Brigtcs,  Study  of  Holy  Scriptvre,  pp 
280  seq.  ;  for  the  Brisjjis  case,  vide  The  Case  against  Professor  Brigc/s' 
1S92,  1893  ;  The  Defence  of  Professor  Briggs,  1893.] 

2   Vide  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.   491  seq.  ;   also  Biblical 
History,  1890  ;  Jiew  Light  on  the  Life  of  Jesus,  1904. 


192    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

Sep'p,  Guerin,  Stanley,  Tristram,  Merrill,  Wetzstein,  Pahner, 
Arnavd,  Thomson,  and  Trumbull.  A  new  impulse  was  given  to 
the  study  of  Biblical  Geography  by  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Societies,  established  in  England,  the  United  States,  and  Ger- 
many, by  their  journals,  maps,  and  other  publications.  Valuable 
contributions  were  made  towards  the  close  of  the  century  by 
Socin,  George  Adam  Smith,  Ramsay,  and  Gautier. 

(9)  Biblical  Chronology  was  studied  by  Wieseler  (1843),  Caspari 
(1869),  Niebuhr  (1896),  and  others. 

(10)  Biblical  Theology,^  first  organised  as  a  discipline  by 
Gabler  (1787),  had  a  rich  development  in  Germany,  but  only  a 
slight  one  outside  of  Germany.  Schmid  first  gave  to  this  depart- 
ment its  proper  place  in  Theological  Encyclopaedia.  [The  first 
to  write  upon  this  subject  in  the  United  States,  so  far  as  known, 
was  the  author,^  who  pubhshed  an  Inaugural  Address  upon 
Biblical  Theology  in  1870.^  At  that  time]  the  chief  works  were 
posthumous  :  those  of  Schmid  (for  the  New  Testament),  and  of 
Oehler  (for  the  Old  Testament),  both  of  the  University  of  Tubingen. 
The  most  important  works  of  the  century  published  since  that 
time  are  those  of  Ewald  (1871-1876),  Kuenen,  Riehm  and  Dill- 
mann  (both  posthumous),  Smend,  Wendt,  and  Holtzmann,  in 
Germany  ;  Toy  and  Stevens,  in  America  ;  Duff  and  Davidson, 
in  Great  Britain, 

7.  The  nineteenth  century  was  characterised  by  historical 
investigation  over  a  very  extensive  field. 

The  great  historians  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
chiefly  Germans  : 

(1)  Neander  of  Berlin  (t  1850)  made  an  epoch  in  Church  History. 
His  Ge7ieral  History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and  Church  *  extends 
to  the  Council  of  Basel  (1430).  It  is  comprehensive  in  method, 
not  only  dividing  by  periods,  but  in  each  period  dividing  again 
by    departments.      This     method,     while     advantageous     for 

1  Vide  Brisrgs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  569  seq. 

2  [Dr.  Brif^gs  was  also  the  first  in  the  United  States  to  attempt  a 
complete  course  of  lectures  upon  Biblical  Theology,  and  held  the  first 
professorship  on  the  subject  from  1S90-1904,  publishing  works  on  the 
theology  of  both  Testaments  :  Messianic  Prophecy  (1886,  19029),  Messiah 
of  the  Oospds  (1894),  Messiah  of  the  Apostles  (1895),  The  Incarnation  of 
the  Lord  (1902),  The  Ethical  Teaching  of  Jesus  (1904).] 

3  Briggs,  'Biblical  Theology,'  in  A  vierican  Presbyterian  Review,  1870, 
pp.  105  seq.,  293  seq.  ;  Presbyterian  Review,  1882,  vol.  iii.  pp.  503  seq. 

4  Ne.ander,  Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  christlichen  Religion  und  Kirche, 
1825-1852,  1863-1865^;  English,  1847-1852,  1882. 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  193 

thoroughness   of   treatment,   involves   considerable   repetition ; 
and  the  unity  of  the  movement  of  history  is  lost  in  details. 

(2)  Gkseler  of  Bonn  (f  1854),  afterwards  of  Gottingen,  used 
the  same  method  as  that  of  Neander.  His  Church  History  ^ 
has  a  brief  comprehensive  text,  and  is  rich  in  footnotes,  giving 
the  original  sources. 

(3)  F.  C.  Baur  of  Tiibingen  (f  I860)  wrote  a  Church  History ,« 
both  critical  and  philosophical,  under  the  influence  of  the 
Hegelian  philosophy,  and  with  a  profound  insight  into  historical 
development.  These  are  the  three  great  Church  historians  of 
the  middle  of  the  last  century. 

There  were  many  minor  historians  at  this  period,  such  as  the 
Protestants,  Niedner,  Hagenbach  and  Hase  in  Germany,  Robert- 
eon  in  England,  Chastel  in  Geneva  ;  and  the  Roman  Cathohcs, 
Moehler  and  Dollinger,  both  of  whom  were  the  peers  of  the 
Protestant  writers  of  the  time. 

The  chief  historians  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century  were : 
(4)  Philip  Schaff  (f  1893),  of  the  school  of  Neander,  who  thus 
characterised  his  own  work  :  '  It  is  written  from  the  Anglo- 
German  and  Anglo-American  standpoint,  and  brings  the  past  in 
living  contact  with  the  present.'  ^  Schaff's  work  is  irenic,  com- 
prehensive, discursive,  boihng  over  with  suggestions  about  all 
sorts  of  things  loosely  connected  with  his  theme.  This  is  its 
chief  fault. 

(5)  Adolf  Hamack  of  BerUn  has  not  written  a  general  Church 
History,  but  deals  only  with  special  themes  ;  and  in  treating 
of  these  he  writes  under  the  domination  of  the  philosophy  of 
Ritschl  His  principal  work  is  his  History  of  Christian  Doctrine.* 
His  greatest  service,  however,  has  been  in  the  field  of  early 
Christian  Literature,  and  his  most  valuable  contribution  to 
Theology  is  his  history  of  that  Literature. 

(6)  Karl  Miiller  of  Breslau  and  Tiibingen  produced  in  his 
Church  History  (1892-1902)  a  judicious  work. 

(7)  Loofs  of  Halle  published  invaluable  Grundlinien  der 
Kirchengeschichte  (1901). 

(8)  Fisher  of  Yale  wrote  a  History  of  the  Christian  Church  in 

1  Gieseler,  Lehrhuch  der  Kirchengeschichte,  1824-1857  ;  the  last  part 
issued  posthumously  by  Redepeuning  in  2  vols.,  1855-1857;  English 
translations  by  Davidson  and  Hull,  revised  by  H.  B.  Smith  and  Stearns, 
6  vols.,  1857-1880. 

2  Banr's  History  was  published  in  5  roluraes  under  different  titles 
(several  posthumously),  1853-1863. 

8  Schaff,  Theological  Propaedeutics,  p.  303, 
4  Vide  p.  196. 


194    HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY     [pt.  n. 

1888  ;    and  (9)  Hurst  published  one  in  two  volumes,  1897-1900. 
Both  produced  also  several  lesser  historical  works. 

(10)  Duchesne  of  Rome  is  the  great  Roman  Catholic  Wstorian. 
His  monumental  work  is  now  in  progress  (1905- ;  English, 
1909- ).  Three  volumes  have  appeared,  reaching  to  the  close  of 
the  fifth  century.  Duchesne  has  written  many  monographs, 
the  chief  of  which  is  his  Origins  of  Christian  Worship  (1889), 
which  has  appeared  in  several  editions  and  has  been  translated 
(English,  1902).  Duchesne  has  many  disciples,  who,  like  Batiffol 
and  Turmel,  have  written  valuable  monographs. 

Church  History  has  been  divided  into  a  large  number 
of  departments  and  sub- departments.  One  may  say  that 
all  things  have  been  put  into  the  frame  of  Church  History. 
It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than  mention  some  of 
the  departments  in  which  important  work  has  been  done. 

I.  The  Study  of  the  Sources:  (1)  Diplomatics.  The  work  of 
Mahillon  (1681)  was  carried  on  by  Jajfe  (1851),  Wattenbach, 
Delisle,  and  others.  (2)  Christian  Archeology,  Inscriptions, 
Monuments,  especially  the  Catacombs,  and  Christian  Art.  The 
work  of  De  Rossi  on  Inscriptions  (1861-1888),  the  Catacombs 
(1864-1877),  etc.,  was  continued  by  Garrux^ci,  Marucchi,  Wilpert, 
and  others.  Piper  published  valuable  works  on  Monumental 
Theology  (1867)  and  the  Mythology  of  Christian  Art  (1847-1851). 
Many  books  were  printed  on  Christian  Art,  including  the  learned 
works  of  Liibke,  Schultze,  Kraus,  and  others,  and  the  popular 
works  of  Mrs.  Jameson.  Dictionaries  of  Christian  Antiquity 
and  Archgeology  were  issued  by  Martigny  (1865),  Kraus  (1880- 
1886),  Smith  and  CheetJiam ;  Manuals  on  Archaeology  by  Augusti 
(1836-1837),  Bennett  (1888),  and  others;  and  sources  were  col- 
lected by  Augusti  (1817-1831),  Binterim  (1825-1837),  and  a 
multitude  of  other  scholars. 

(3)  Geography  was  studied  by  Wiltsch  (1846),  Spruner,  Grunde- 
mann,  Werner,  and  others. 

(4)  Chronology  by  Grotefend  (1819-1844),  Piper  (1841),  Brink- 
meier,  Brockmann,  Latrie,  and  others.  Chronological  Tables 
were  pubhshed  by  H.  B.  Smith  (1860),  Kraus  and  Weingarlen. 

(5)  Statistics  were  studied  by  Stdudlin  (1804),  Augusti  (1837- 
1838),  Wiltsch,  and  others. 

(6)  Christian  Literature  attracted  great  attention  ;  and  im- 
portant work  was  done  (a)  for  the  Patristic  Period  by  Hariiack, 
Von  Gehhardt,  Zahn,  Lipsius,  Lightfoot,  MiiUerf  Kihn,  Bar  den- 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  195 

hewer,  Kriiger,  Robinson,  McGiffert,  and  many  other  scholars ; 
(6)  for  the  Middle  Ages  by  Gass,  Krumhacher,  Ehert,  Denifle, 
Ehrle,  Potthast,  and  others ;  (c)  for  the  Modern  Age  by  Ersch 
(1822),  DaT\.z  (1843),  Winer,  Darling,  Hurst,  Gla.,  Hurler,  and 
others.!  Collections  of  the  works  of  the  Fathers,  Reformers, 
and  other  famous  Christian  writers  appeared  in  great  numbers. 

(7)  The  History  of  Church  Councils  was  studied  by  Hefele, 
Hergenrother,  Richter,  Bright,  Haddan,  Stuhbs,  and  many  others. 
Richter,  Froude,  and  others  also  wrote  on  special  Councils. 

(8)  The  Saints  and  their  Hves  were  studied  by  the  BoUandists 
in  their  great  Acta  Sanctorum  and  in  the  Analecta  Bollandiana  ; 
and  also  by  Le  Blant,  Pitra,  Egli,  Baring-Gould,  O'Hanlon,  New- 
man, and  many  more.  Piper  published  an  Evangelical  Calendar 
(1850-1871),  which  was  translated  in  part  by  H.  M.  M'Cracken 
as  Lives  of  the  Leaders  of  Our  Church  Universal  (1879).  Lives 
of  special  Saints  were  also  written,  like  that  of  St.  Francis  by 
Paul  Sabatier,  and  that  of  St.  Catherine  of  Genoa  by  Baron  Von 
Hiigel. 

(9)  Christian  Biography  received  many  valuable  contributions. 
Nitzsch  and  Hagenbach  edited  the  hves  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches.  Brook  and  others  followed 
the  illustrious  example  of  Neal  in  the  preceding  century,  and 
studied  the  Uves  of  the  Puritans.  Smith  and  Wace  pubhshed  a 
valuable  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography  (1877-1887).  Many 
series  of  biographies  appeared,  and  numerous  important  mono- 
graphs. 

II.  Special  Sections  of  Church  History  were  studied, 

such  as 

{I)  The  History  of  Institutions,  (a,)  Worship.  This  department 
attracted  such  scholars  as  Wordsworth,  Cabrol,  and  Duchesne.  Col- 
lections of  Liturgies  were  made  by  Neale,  Hammond,  Daniel. 
Littledale,  Swaiyison,  and  others,  (b)  Government.  On  this  sub- 
ject important  works  were  pubhshed  by  Richter,  Sohm,  Von 
Schulte,  Hergenrother,  and  others,  (c)  Canon  Law  was  studied 
by  Walther,  Von  Schulte,  Dodd,  Fulton,  and  others.  New 
editions  of  the  Corpus  juris  canonici  were  issued  by  Richter  (1834- 
1839)  and  by  Friedberg  (1880-1882).  (d)  The  Papacy  and  its 
history  were  studied  by  Von  Ranke  (1834-1839),  Nielson,  Pastor, 
Creighton,  and  others  ;  Particular  Po'pes  by  Law,  Roscoe,  and 
others.     Mirbt  pubhshed  the  Sources,  and  Dzichesne  prepared  an 

1  Vide  also  the  works  on  Theological  Encyclopcedia  already  referred 
to  (pp.  188  f.). 


196     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

edition  of  the  lAher  Pontificalis.  (e)  The  Monastic  Orders  received 
special  attention  from  Montalembert  (1860-1867),  Heimbuchert 
and  others. 

(2)  The  History  of  Doctrines  and  Dogmas.  Neander  and  Baur 
wrote  histories  of  doctrine,  and  also  monographs  on  the  history 
of  special  doctrines.  Baur's  works  on  Gnosticism  and  on  the 
Trinity  are  especially  noteworthy ;  so  also  are  Julius  Mailer's 
Doctrine  of  Sin,  and  above  all,  Dorner's  History  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Person  of  Christ,  the  greatest  of  all  monographs  of  the 
kind.  Dorner  also  wrote  a  History  of  Protestant  Theology  ( 1867). 
HarnacFs  History  of  Doctrine  appeared  in  major  (1886-1890)  and 
minor  (1889)  editions  ;  so  also  that  of  Seeberg  (1895-1898,  and 
1901).  Loofs  published  Leitfaden  zum  Studium  der  Dogmen- 
geschichie  (1889,  1906) ;  and  G.  P.  Fisher,  a  History  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (1896).  The  chief  Roman  Catholic  writer  on  the 
subject  is  Schwane,  whose  work  was  issued  in  four  volumes 
(1862-1890). 

(3)  The  History  of  Christian  Life  and  Morals  was  studied 
by  Uhlhorn,  Brace,  and  others,  and  valuable  monographs  were 
pubhshed. 

III.  Parts  of  Church  History,  or  the  History  of  Par- 
ticular Churches,  or  of  Special  Periods.  A  large  number 
of  historians  devoted  their  attention  to  some  special 
part  of  Church  History.  Thus  Milman  wrote  the 
History  of  Latin  Christianity  ;  Neale  and  Stanley,  the 
History  of  Eastern  Christianity  ;  Friedrich,  Hauck,  and 
others,  the  Church  History  of  Germany  ;  Reuterdahl,  that 
of  Sweden  ;  Bright,  Stubhs,  Hore,  Plummer,  and  others, 
that  of  England  ;  Hetherington,  Cunningham,  Stephen, 
and  others,  that  of  Scotland  ;  Lanigan  and  Killen,  that 
of  Ireland,  etc.  ;  Hanhury,  Dexter,  and  others  studied 
the  History  of  Congregationalism  ;  Hetherington  and 
Mitchell,  that  of  the  Westminster  Assembly.^  Each 
denomination  and  every  important  epoch  had  its  own 
historians.  Several  serials  were  issued,  such  as  the 
American  Church  History  Series,  the  Epochs  of  Church 

1  [To  the  study  of  church  history  Dr.  Briggs  contributed  a  volume  on 
American  Preshyterianism,  1885,  and  numerous  articles  in  the  Encyclo- 
pcedia  Brilannica,  the  Presbyterian  Review,  Magazine  of  American 
History,  and  other  periodicals.] 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  197 

History,  the  National  Churches,  etc.  The  History  of  the 
Early  Church  received  especial  attention  from  Neander, 
Dollinger,  Farrar,  Pressense,  Lechler,  Wordsworth,  Blunt, 
Bright,  Fisher,  McGiffert,  Duchesne,  and  many  others  ; 
the  Mediaeval  Period  from  Hardwick,  Moeller,  Trench, 
Stubbs,  Schmidt,  and  others ;  the  Reformation  from 
Merle  D'Aubigne,  Hagenbach,  Hardwick,  Hdusser,  Fisher, 
and  others.  These  are  but  examples  of  the  numerous 
specialists  at  work  in  the  field  of  Church  History  during 
the  century. 

8.  There  arose  in  the  course  of  the  century  a  series  of 
great  systematic  theologians,  who  aimed  at  a  complete 
system  of  Theology,  built  upon  Philosophy  and  Science, 
Bible  and  History,  Church  and  Creed} 

The  older  divisions  of  Doctrinal  Theology  were : 
Positive  Theology  and  Scholastic  Theology,  and  Faith 
and  Morals.  These  divisions  are  still  retained  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  the  Protestant  Churches, 
however,  Positive  Theology  has  been  resolved  into 
Biblical  Theology  and  Symbolical  Theology.  These  are 
variously  classified.  If  the  main  purpose  is  dogma,  they 
may  be  classified  as  Biblical  Dogmatics  and  Symbolical 
Dogmatics  ;  if  history,  as  the  History  of  Doctrine  in  the 
Bible  and  the  History  of  Symbols.  But  really  both 
disciplines  have  become  so  comprehensive  that  we 
must  classify  Biblical  Theology  with  the  Biblical  Depart- 
ment, and  Symbolics  under  another  head  as  Comparative 
Theology,  to  be  considered  later  on.  The  usual  Protestant 
divisions  of  Systematic  Theology  are  Apologetics,  Dogma- 
tics, and  Ethics.  The  division  which  I  have  used  is 
rather  Religion,  Faith,  and  Morals. 

I.  Under  the  head  of  Religion,  the  union  and  com- 
munion of  man  with  God,  unfolds  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion,  and  the  statement  and  defence  of  the  Christian 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Church  Unity,  pp.  331  seq. 


198     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

Religion,  or  Apologetic  proper.  The  recent  study  of  the 
Ethnic  Religions  has  greatly  extended  this  field,  so  that 
it  now  includes  the  study  of  the  origin  and  history  of 
every  particular  religion  and  a  Comparative  Study  of 
Religion.  These  departments  of  Theology  are  in  their 
infancy,  and  must  be  considered  under  another  head. 
The  older  term  of  Natural  Theology  has  gone  out  of  use, 
and  the  discipline  is  now  included  under  the  larger  term 
of  Philosophy  of  Religion. 

2.  The  Faith  of  the  Church  as  defined  in  the  Bible  is 
Biblical  Dogmatics  ;  as  defined  in  the  Creeds  is  Symbolical 
Dogwxitics ;  as  defined  by  the  consent  of  the  Fathers  it 
is  Patristic  Dogmatics  ;  as  defined  by  the  Scholastics 
it  is  Scholastic  Dogmutics.  The  division  of  the  Church 
into  denominations  gave  rise  to  a  large  number  of 
denominational  dogmatics  ;  those  of  the  Greek  Church, 
the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Lutheran,  Reformed,  Anghcan, 
Methodist,  Presbyterian,  etc.  But  most  modern  divines 
construct  their  dogmatics  on  certain  philosophical 
principles  ;  and  so  we  have  various  speculative  systems, 
representing  different  schools  of  philosophy  and  theology. 

The  chief  Roman  Catholic  systems  of  the  century  were  those 
of  Perrone,  a  Jesuit  (in  nine  volumes,  1835-1843) ;  Scheeben 
(1892);  Bilot,  and  Janssen,  a  Scholastic.  The  chief  Lutheran 
systems  were  those  of  Hase,^  Schmid,  Twesten,  Martensen, 
Philiypi,  Thomasius,  Luthardt,  Kahnis.  The  chief  writers 
among  the  Hegelians  were  Marheinecke,  Strauss,  Biedermann, 
Pfleiderer ;  among  the  Mediators,  Midler,  Tholuck,  Ullmann, 
Rothe,  I.  A.  Dorner ;  among  the  Ritschlians,  Ritschl  (1870-1874), 
Kaftan,  and  Herrmann.  The  Ritschlians  exclude  Mystic  and 
Metaphysic,  and  make  their  W eriurtheilen  the  subjective  test  of 
all  theology.  The  Neo-Kantians  recognise  only  the  earlier 
Luther,  not  the  later  one ;  and  only  that  in  the  New  Testament 
which  is  commended  as  of  real  value.  The  chief  Reformed 
systems  of  the  Continent  were  those  of  Schweizer  (1844-1S56), 
Heppe,  and  Ehrard.  The  Anglican  Church  has  had  practically 
none  since  Ussher,  except  that  of  Beveridge  (1710-1711,  1828). 

1  Hase,  Hutterus  redivivus,  1829,  188312. 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  199 

The  Scottish  Presbyterians  have  had  those  of  Hill,  Dick,  Chalmers^ 
and  Cunningham ;  tlie  American  Presbyterians  those  of  Charles 
and  A.  A.  Hodge,  Shedd,  and  H.  B.  Smith.  Among  the  German 
Reformed  theologians  may  be  mentioned  Gerhart ;  among  the 
Wesleyans,  Watson,  Pope,  Raymond,  Miley  ;  among  the  Ameri- 
can Episcopahans,  Buel ;  among  the  Baptists,  Strong  and  Clarke. 

3.  Christian  Ethics,  the  third  division  of  Dogmatics, 
was  kept  as  a  separate  field  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
from  the  Middle  Ages  onward,  but  has  only  been  culti- 
vated by  Protestants  since  the  last  century.  It  used  to 
be  taught  in  connection  with  Philosophical  Ethics  under 
the  head  of  Moral  Philosophy. 

Among  the  chief  writers  of  the  century  in  this  department 
may  be  mentioned  the  Protestants,  Neander,  Rothe,  Gass,  Wuttke, 
I.  A.  Dorner,  Martensen,  and  Newman  Smythe  ;  and  the  Roman 
Cathohcs,  Sailer,  Scavini,  Hirscher,  Klee,  Lehmkuhl,  and  Schwane. 

9.  Comparative  Theology  has  risen  above  all  the  differ- 
ences of  religious  denominations  into  that  higher  unity  in 
which  they  all  agree,  and  endeavours  to  consider  their 
differences  in  religion,  doctrine,  and  institution  from  an 
irenic  point  of  view.^ 

1.  The  Science  of  Religion,  as  we  have  seen,^  has 
branched  out  into  a  large  number  of  different  depart- 
ments, giving  the  history  of  every  particular  religion, 
and  a  comparative  study  of  them  all.  This  field  of 
study  supplies  the  first  part  of  Comparative  Theology, 
or  Comparative  Religion.  The  older  study  of  the  Ethnic 
Religions  was  polemic  ;  the  present  is  historic  and 
pragmatic.  There  is  a  tendency  towards  irenic,  as 
illustrated  in  the  work  of  Charles  Cuthbert  Hall,  George 
W.  Knox,  and  others.  Each  religion  has  to  be  studied 
by  itself ,  and  then  the  comparison  has  to  be  made  between 
them.     If  Christianity  is  the  universal  religion,  then  the 

1  Vide  Brings,  '  Ideal  of  the  Study  of  Theology  '  ;  Address  at  Dedication 
of  the  New  Buildings  of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York, 
1910,  pp.  133  seq. 

2  Vide  p.  198. 


200     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  il 

theologian  must  recognise,  with  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
that  the  Philosophy  of  the  Greeks  was,  in  its  way,  as 
truly  a  preparation  for  Christianity  as  the  Law  of  the 
Hebrews ;  and  that  the  practice  of  ancient  Israel  in 
taking  up  into  the  Old  Covenant  religion  elements  of 
good,  especially  from  the  Babylonian  and  Persian 
religions,  and  the  practice  of  the  ancient  Church  in 
appropriating  from  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  Oriental 
religions,  is  the  true  and  wise  course  for  modern  Chris- 
tianity to  adopt,  by  enlarging  this  theory  and  practice, 
so  as  to  comprehend  all  of  the  religions  of  the  world. 

2.  The  discipline  of  Symbolics}  first  established  by 
Planck  of  Gottingen  (1796),  has  had  a  long  development. 

On  the  basis  of  the  work  of  Planck,  Marheinecke 
published  the  first  Christliche  Symbolik  (1810),  and 
Winer  his  useful  comparative  study  (1824).  Mohler 
then  came  into  the  field  with  his  Symbolik  (1832,  18891^), 
which  fixed  the  terminology  of  the  discipline.  His  work 
was  followed  by  those  of  F.  C.  Baur  (1834),  Nitzsch 
(1835),  Ease  (1862,  1894^),  Neander  (1863),  and  others. 
Of  the  writers  whose  works  appeared  towards  the  close 
of  the  century,  H.  Schmidt  (1890),  E.  F.  K.  Muller 
(1896),  and  Kattenbusch  (1892)  may  be  mentioned. 
Many  works  were  written  on  special  subjects,  like  those 
of  Caspari  and  Kattenbusch  on  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
and  of  Plitt  (1867-1873)  on  the  Augustana. 

Collections  of  Symbols  were  made  by  Schaff  for  all  the  Churches 
(1877,  18905) ;  by  Niemeyer  (1840)  for  the  Pvcformed  Church ;  by 
Hase  (1827,  18453)  ^nd  J.  T.  Muller  (1847-1848,  1890')  for  the 
Lutheran  ;  by  Streitwolf  and  Klener  (1836-1838),  and  Denzinger 
(1854, 1911^^)  for  the  Roman  Cathohc  ;  by  Kimmel  and  Weissen- 
born  (1843-1850)  for  the  Greek  Church. 

Polemics,  which  had  been  an  important  theological 
discipline  in  the  preceding  century,  became  discredited, 

1  [The  latest  published  works  of  Dr.  Briggs  are  his  contributions  to 
this  department,  The  Fundamental  Christian  Faith,  1913,  and  Theological 
Symbolics  f  1914.] 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  201 

and  in  modem  theology  has  been  well-nigh  abandoned. 
Irenics  is  the  newest  section  of  Symbolics,  yet  it  has 
already  an  extensive  literature.  It  has  been  most 
fruitful  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  where  it  originated.^ 
Irenics  is  the  resultant  of  all  the  previous  theological 
disciplines,  and  puts  the  copestone  upon  them  all.  It 
studies  the  concord  of  Christendom,  and  on  that  basis 
shows  the  true  unity  of  the  Church  of  Christ ;  and  it 
studies  the  discord,  in  order,  if  possible,  to  dissolve  the 
differences  and  reconcile  them  in  a  higher  unity,  and  in 
all  to  promote  peace  and  harmony  between  all  religious 
bodies.^ 

10.  The  field  of  Practical  Theology  has  also  greatly 
expanded,  and  many  valuable  works  were  produced  in 
this  department  before  the  close  of  the  century. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than  give  the  names 
of  some  of  the  sub-departments,  in  which  important  work 
was  accomplished.  (1)  In  the  Department  of  Religion 
may  be  mentioned  Worship,  especially  Liturgies  and 
Hymnology,  the  Sacraments,  Pastoral  Care  and  Pastoral 
Medicine.  (2)  The  Department  of  Faith  now  includes, 
with  Homiletics  and  Catechetics,  Sunday  Schools,  Social 
Clubs,  etc. ;  (3)  the  Department  of  Morals,  Church  Govern- 
ment, Law  and  Discipline.  In  the  field  of  Missions 
(city,  country,  and  foreign)  a  great  advance  has  been 
made. 

Among  the  comprehensive  works  on  this  branch  of  theology 
may  be  mentioned  those  written  by  the  Protestants  :  Nitzsch, 
Harms,  Van  Oosterzee,  Von  Zezschwitz,  Achelis,  Krauss,  and 
Vaucher ;  and  by  the  Roman  Cathohcs :  Sailer,  Hinterherger, 
and  Graf. 

1  Vide  Briggs,  Theological  Symbolics,  pp.  16  seq.  ;  'Symbolics  and 
Irenics,'  in  Church  Quarterly  Review,  1912,  vol.  Ixxiv.,  No.  148,  pp. 
364  i^eq. 

2  [Dr.  Briggs  worked  on  the  problems  of  Irenics  for  nearly  thirty  years, 
and  published  some  of  the  results  of  his  study  in  his  volume  on  Church 
Unity,  1909.] 


202     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

11.  The  modern  universities,  like  those  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  train  theological  scholars,  hut  do  not  train  ministers 
fcyr  the  Church  of  Christ.  The  theological  seminaries 
train  ministers,  hut  make  no  adequate  provision  for  the 
higher  studies  of  Theology. 

1.  The  universities  of  Germany  have  failed  to  provide 
the  training  necessary  to  an  evangehcal  ministry. 
The  Predigerseminar  supplies  the  need  only  in  part ; 
and  the  service  of  pastor's  assistant  (for  two  years  or 
more),  while  necessary  and  valuable,  also  fails  to  accom- 
plish the  purpose,  because  in  the  university  the  bent  of 
the  student's  mind  becomes  so  fixed  upon  speculative 
and  merely  theoretic  theology,  that  it  is  difficult  for 
him  afterwards  to  become  practical.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  working  ministry  of  Germany  has  long  been 
dissatisfied  with  the  theological  teaching  of  the  univer- 
sities, and  is  constantly  urging  for  reform.  It  is  certain 
that,  if  these  Protestant  clergy  had  their  way,  the 
teaching  in  the  universities  would  be  transformed,  and 
the  Hegelians  and  the  Ritschlians  alike  would  be 
banished.  But  the  State  stands  in  the  way.  The 
German  universities  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the 
present  one  are  in  exactly  the  same  position  as  the 
universities  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Their  methods  are 
excellent  for  a  scientific  study  of  theology,  but  ineffective 
for  the  training  of  a  Christian  ministry. 

2.  Germany  was  dependent  upon  Great  Britain  for 
almost  all  the  practical  reforms  and  religious  movements 
that  arose  among  her  people  during  the  past  century. 
And  yet  in  the  British  universities  also  the  training  was 
altogether  inadequate,  so  far  as  theology  was  concerned. 
These  great  institutions  produced  notable  scholars ; 
but  they  did  not  supply  the  training  necessary  for  the 
ministry  of  the  Church.  Howevei,  comparatively  few 
of  the  students,  even  of  those  intending  to  enter  the 
Christian  ministry  in  the  Anglican  Church,  attended  the 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  203 

university  courses  in  theology.  The  Church  of  England 
was  obliged  to  organise  Diocesan  Seminaries  in  order 
to  provide  the  churches  with  ministers.^  The  Non- 
conformists were  excluded  from  the  universities  until 
recent  years.  They  were  obliged  to  train  their  ministers 
in  their  private  colleges  ;  and  yet  they  have  succeeded, 
notwithstanding  all  their  disadvantages,  in  winning  fully 
one  half  of  the  English  people  to  the  various  branches 
of  Nonconformity.  In  Scotland  the  universities  have 
theological  faculties,  but  with  only  four  professors — 
a  number  altogether  inadequate  to  do  the  work  of 
modem  theolog3^  The  Free  Church  with  its  three 
colleges,  and  the  United  Presbyterian  with  one  (now 
united  with  the  others  in  the  reunion  of  those  churches), 
have  had  more  professors,  longer  courses,  and  a  more 
thorough  appropriation  of  modem  methods  and  modem 
departments  of  theology ;  and  they  have  educated  a 
ministry  which,  in  spite  of  every  disadvantage,  has  won 
nearly  half  of  the  Scottish  people  to  their  side. 

3.  The  French  and  Swiss  Protestants  followed  the 
methcds  of  the  British  nonconforming  bodies  in  their 
theological  seminaries.  The  universities  of  Switzerland 
followed  the  same  course  as  those  of  other  countries.  In 
France  two  seminaries  were  established  for  Protestants 
by  Napoleon  (1802)  :  the  one  at  Strasburg  for  Lutherans, 
the  other  at  Geneva  for  the  Reformed.  After  the  re- 
attachment of  Geneva  to  Switzerland  a  new  faculty  of 
theology  was  established  at  Montauhan  (1808-1810)  in 
connection  with  the  academy  of  Toulouse.  The  Protes- 
tant faculty  of  theology  at  Strasburg  was  transferred  to 
Paris  in  1877,  and  became  a  mixed  faculty,  representing 
both  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  Churches. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  century  (1896)  this  Seminary  became 
an  organic  part  of  the  University  of  Paris.     Two  years  later 

1  There  are  now  twenty  nine  theological  colleges  affiliated  with  the 
Church  of  England  (W.  A.  Brown,  Cyclajjedia  of  Education,  v.  p.  592). 

VOL.  II.  0 


204     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [ft.  u. 

one  of  its  professors  described  it  as  a  '  mixed  school  .  .  .  holding 
a  conciliatory  attitude  toward  the  parties  contending  in  our 
churches,'  and  as  '  holding  ground  intermediate  between  the 
conservatism  of  the  Montauban  Faculty  and  the  lationaHstic 
bent  of  the  Geneva  Faculty.'  ^ 

In  French  Switzerland  the  Free  Churches  separated 
from  the  State  and  established  Free  Seminaries  in 
Geneva,  Lausanne,  and  Neuchdtel,  which  have  since 
educated  the  Evangelical  clergy  for  French  Switzerland 
and  France. 

Baird,  writing  in  1880,  describes  the  Free  Church  seminaries 
as  having  a  preparatory  course  or  courses,  covering  from  one 
to  three  years,  followed  by  a  three  years'  course  of  theology 
proper.  Hebrew,  as  well  as  Greek  and  Latin,  was  studied  in  the 
preparatory  course.  In  Geneva  the  number  of  hours  per  week 
in  the  Free  Church  Seminary  was  thirty  ;  in  the  State  institu- 
tion, twenty-one.  In  all  the  Seminaries  one-third  of  the  time 
(8-10  hours  weekly)  was  devoted  to  BibUcal  Exegesis,  and 
divided  about  equally  between  the  two  Testaments.^ 

4.  After  the  disasters  of  the  French  Revolution  and 
the  wars  of  Napoleon,  the  Roman  Church  devoted  itself 
to  the  revival  of  theological  education.  For  that 
purpose  it  undertook  the  restoration  of  the  diocesan 
seminary  and  improvement  in  the  training  of  the  priest- 
hood. To  this  end  the  Jesuit  Order  was  restored  in 
1814  ;  their  college  in  Rome  revived,  and  put  under 
their  control.  The  College  of  the  Propaganda  was 
re-established,  as  also  the  Roman  Seminary  and  the 
College  of  Noble  Ecclesiastics.  The  Jesuit  Order 
reassumed  its  position  at  the  head  of  theological  educa- 
tion, sustained  by  the  other  orders,  especially  the 
Sulpicians  in  France.  The  newer  learning  was  only 
moderately  employed  in  the  seminaries.     These  reverted 

1  Bonet-Maury,  'The  Protestant  Faculty  of  Theology  of  the  Paris 
University,'  in  New  World,  1898,  vol.  vii.,  No.  25,  p.  128. 

2  Vide  Baird,  '  Notes  on  Theological  Education  in  the  Reformed 
Churches  of  France  and  French  Switzerland  '  in  Presbyterian  Review^ 
1880,  vol.  1.  pp.  85  se^. 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  205 

to  a  modified  Scholasticism,  building  essentially  on 
Thomas  Aquinas.  They  have  been  successful  in 
reviving  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  theological 
learning  as  well  as  a  trained  priesthood  ;  but  their 
general  attitude  has  been  reactionary  as  regards  modern 
methods.  So  far  as  the  Catholic  universities  are  con- 
cerned, the  Catholic  Church  has  patronised  them  in 
Germany  ^  and  Austria,  and  has  tried  so  far  as  possible 
to  influence  and  control  professors  and  students  ;  but 
only  in  small  measure  have  they  succeeded.  The  Old 
Catholics  of  1870  and  the  Modernists  of  to-day  in 
Germany  have  chiefly  gone  forth  from  the  universities. 
The  Council  of  the  Vatican  (1870)  urged  the  importance 
of  higher  universities  ;  not  of  the  grade  of  the  German 
universities,  but  of  a  higher  order,  to  which  the  best 
scholars  of  the  seminaries  might  resort  for  the  highest 
possible  theological  education.  Such  institutions  were 
established  at  Rome,  in  Belgium,  and  in  the  capital  of 
the  United  States.  The  Catholic  Church  has  long  aimed 
at  one  in  Ireland  ;  and  would  undertake  to  establish 
them  in  other  countries,  if  it  were  practicable.  This 
highest  theological  education,  for  the  training  of  special- 
ists in  Canon  Law,  Scholastic  Theology,  and  Liturgies, 
and  also  to  make  great  preachers  and  evangelists,  is  in 
advance  of  all  theological  education  in  the  Protestant 
world.  Protestants  also  should  establish  and  build  up 
graduate  schools  for  the  study  of  the  highest  branches 
of  theology,  both  scientific  and  practical.  Otherwise 
the  future  will  be  disastrous  to  Protestantism.  The 
present  pope  (Pius  x.)  ^  has  undertaken  to  carry  out  a 
long  and  carefully  prepared  scheme  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  seminaries,  especially  in   Italy.     The  diocesan 

1  Four  of  the  twenty-one  universities  of  Germany  have  in  their 
Theological  Faculties  Roman  Catholics  only  ;  four  have  both  Catholics 
and  Protestants  ;  thirteen  are  wholly  Protestant  {vide  W.  A.  Brown,  in 
Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  v.  p.  589). 

2  This  was  written  in  March  1913. 


206     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

seminary  is  an  excellent  institution  in  a  large  diocese, 
but  a  very  inefficient  institution  in  a  small  diocese.  In 
Italy  the  number  of  diocesan  seminaries  was  consider- 
ably over  two  hundred.  Consolidation  was  necessary, 
and  is  now  in  course  of  accomplishment.  Furthermore, 
there  is  a  reform  in  theological  study,  in  accordance  with 
the  study  in  the  best  French,  English,  and  American 
seminaries. 

For  entrance  to  the  seminary,  preparatory  study  in  the  lesser 
seminaries,  in  the  Gymnasium  and  Lyceum,  is  required  (essen- 
tially that  of  the  grammar  school  and  the  academy) ;  then  comes 
an  introductory  year  in  the  seminary  for  the  special  study  of 
Philosophy.  The  scheme  assigns  to  the  introductory  year : 
Biblical  Greek,  the  Introduction  to  Church  History,  the  True  Reli- 
gion, Theodicy,  Cosmology,  the  History  of  Philosophy,  and  Natural 
Law ;  to  the  four  years  of  theology  proper :  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Biblical  Introduction  and  Exegesis,  Church  History,  Dogmatics, 
Morals,  Pastoral  Theology,  Liturgies,  Canon  Law,  Patristic, 
Archceology,  Sacred  Art,  and  Sacred  Eloquence.  The  study 
extends  over  five  years  of  nine  months  each,  or  forty-five  months, 
with  seventeen  hours  of  lectures  weekly  for  the  first  year,  and 
twenty  hours  weekly  for  the  other  four  years ;  that  is,  nearly 
double  the  amount  of  time  required  in  some  of  the  leading 
Protestant  institutions.  The  apportionment  of  time  is  also 
different,  the  hours  being  so  distributed  among  the  four  great 
departments,  that  where  three  are  assigned  to  Church  History, 
four  are  devoted  to  Exegetical  Theology,  six  to  Doctrinal^  and 
seven  to  Practical  Theology.^ 

5.  The  Greek  Church  in  Russia  provides  for  the  training 
of  its  priests  diocesan  seminaries,  and  for  the  training 
of  teachers  and  missionaries  four  theological  schools, 
located  at  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Kief,  and  Kazan. 
Outside  of  Russia  the  Greek  clergy  receive  their  train- 
ing under  theological  faculties  in  the  universities  of 
Athens,  Bucharest,  and  Czernowitz,  in  the  seminaries  at 
Constantinople,  Jerusalem,  Belgrade,    Zara    (Dalmatia), 

1  Vide  Riforma  degli  Studi  nci  Seminari  in  Italia.  Lettera  e 
Programma  delta  S.  Congr.  de'  Vescovi  eliegolari  (Supplemento  agli  Acta 
Pontijicia,  Ottobre  1907) ;  Roma  1907. 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  207 

Hermannstadt  and  Karlomtz,  or  in  smaller  seminaries  of 
a  lower  grade.^ 

There  are  signs  of  a  revival  of  the  study  of  theology 
in  the  Greek  Church.     According  to  Adeney, 

'  There  is  a  remarkable  development  of  scholarship  among  the 
higher  ecclesiastics.  Learning  was  never  allowed  to  die  out  in 
the  leading  monastic  centres  ;  but  hitherto  this  has  been  patristic 
learning  without  the  least  recognition  of  critical  scholarship. 
Now  the  criticism  of  the  West  is  breaking  into  the  mind  of  the 
East.  Students  from  the  Greek  Church  are  now  to  be  found  in 
German  universities.  The  result  is  that  the  studies  of  Berlin, 
and  Heidelberg,  and  Strasburg  are  being  transplanted  to  Con- 
stantinople and  Athens.  Already  these  studies  have  borne 
fruit,  and  the  Greek  Church  is  coming  forward  with  its  contri- 
butions to  Historical  Theology.  [An]other  movement  .  .  . 
of  a  more  popular  character  .  .  .  consists  of  the  formation 
of  societies  for  BibUcal  study.  These  societies  are  quite  un- 
ecclesiastical  in  form,  and  are  chiefly  maintained  by  laymen. 
.  .  .  The  movement  is  spreading  rapidly.  .  .  .  Meanwhile  the 
need  of  schools  for  the  clergy  is  being  pressed.'  * 

6.  Theological  seminaries  had  their  chief  development 
among  Protestants  in  America.^  Early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  it  became  evident  that  there  must  be  more 
thorough  training  in  theology,  and  theological  seminaries 
began  to  be  established  after  the  method  of  the  Roman 
Church. 

The  earhest  of  these  was  founded  by  the  Congregationalists  at 
Andover  in  1808.  The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  established  its 
seminary  at  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  1810.  The  Presby- 
terians opened  one  at  Princeton  (1812).  In  the  years  1816-1819 
the  Divinity  School  at  Harvard  was  established  as  a  school  dis- 
tinct from  the  college.  About  the  same  time  the  Congregational 
Seminary  of  Bangor,  Maine,  was  founded.  The  General  Theo- 
logical Seminary  was  opened  by  the  Protestant  Episcopahans  in 
New  York  City  in  1819.  In  the  following  year  Auburn  was 
founded  by  the  Presbyterians,  and  Hamilton  (now  Colgate)  by  the 

1  Vide  W,  A.  Brown,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  ▼.  p.  589. 
'  Adeney,  The  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches,  pp.  337  seq. 
3  Vide  Briggs,  'Theological  Education  and  its  Needs,'  in  The  Forum. 
1892,  vol.  xii.  pp.  634  seq. 


208     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

Baptists.  In  1822  the  Divinity  School  at  New  Haven  was  separ- 
ated from  the  college.  Three  years  later  Newton  was  founded 
by  the  Baptists.  In  Pennsylvania,  the  German  Reformed 
opened  a  seminary  at  Lancaster  (1825),  and  the  Lutherans  at 
Gettysburg  (1826).  Western  Seminary  was  established  by  the 
Presbyterians  at  Allegheny  in  1827,  and  Lane  at  Cincinnati 
in  1832.  Hartford  Seminary  was  founded  in  1834,  and  Oberlin 
in  1835,  both  by  the  Congregationalists.  Union  Theological 
Seminary  was  estabhshed  in  New  York  Gty  in  1836.  These 
seminaries  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  theology  in  a 
three  years'  course,  which  has  never  been  modified  until  the 
present  day. 

Early  in  the  century  there  was  another  struggle  * 
among  the  Presbyterians  as  to  ministerial  education, 
resulting  in  the  separation  of  the  Cumberland  Pres- 
bjrberians  (1810),  who  insisted  upon  having  a  godly 
ministry,  and  upon  accepting  godly  men  as  candidates, 
even  if  they  could  not,  under  the  circumstances  of  a  new 
country,  be  sufficiently  educated. 

The  Methodists  and  Baptists  were  from  the  very 
beginning  more  intent  upon  an  efficient  ministry  than 
upon  an  educated  one. 

The  first  Methodist  college  of  any  permanency  after  that  of 
Cokesbury^  was  opened  at  Middletown  (1831).  The  Methodists, 
however,  trained  their  ministry  at  conference  seminaries.  The 
Biblical  Institute  was  organised  at  Concord,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1847;  but  was  subsequently  removed  to  Boston  (1867),  and 
attached  to  the  Boston  University.  The  Garrett  Biblical  Institute 
at  Evanston,  Illinois  (1854),  was  adopted  as  the  theological 
department  of  North-Western  University,  Drew  was  organised 
in  1867. 

The  Baptists  and  other  bodies  also  gradually  organ- 
ised colleges  and  seminaries,  all  being  of  the  same 
general  type. 

12.  The  Theological  Seminary  and  the  University  are 
in  mulual  need  of  each  other.     Theology  needs  all  the  light 

1  Vide  p.  173.  a  Vide  p.  171. 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  209 

that  every  department  of  science  can  give.  The  University 
in  all  its  departments  leads  up  to  Theology,  and  cannot 
gain  completeness  in  any  of  them  without  Theology.  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  a  movement  to  bring  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  into  closer  relation  with  the  University. 

Great  advantages  arose  from  the  organisation  of 
theological  seminaries  as  separate  institutions.  Theo- 
logical education  made  rapid  strides  forward.  The 
ministry  as  a  class  received  a  higher  professional  educa- 
tion than  they  could  have  had  otherwise.  Vital  piety 
was  developed,  as  it  could  not  have  been  in  the  uni- 
versities, where  the  provisions  necessary  for  its  develop- 
ment are  not  so  easily  made.  The  study  of  theology 
in  the  university  tends  to  become  merely  intellectual  and 
scholastic.  But  if  there  are  perils  in  the  study  of 
theology  in  the  universities,  there  are  perils  just  as 
great  in  the  isolation  of  theologians  in  the  theological 
seminaries.  The  tendency  of  the  seminary  is  to  assume 
a  special  type  of  doctrine  and  to  manifest  a  peculiar 
type  of  piety.  Both  alike  are  injurious,  the  one  to  the 
scholar's  quest  for  Truth,  the  other  to  the  Christian's  life 
in  God.  The  theological  seminary,  by  shutting  itself 
off  from  university  life,  became  limited  and  cramped. 
Its  students  were  alienated  from  their  fellow-students 
in  the  other  professions,  and  cut  off  from  the  progress 
made  in  the  other  departments  of  learning.  But 
theology  has  begun  to  burst  through  these  limitations, 
and  is  reaching  out  in  all  directions  and  demanding  the 
larger,  freer  life  of  the  university.  It  has  unfolded  in'o 
a  great  number  of  studies,  overlapping  and  entwined 
with  those  in  the  other  departments  of  human  learning. 
This  expansion  makes  it  impracticable  any  longer  to 
conduct  the  study  of  theology  apart  from  the  uni- 
versities. On  the  other  hand,  all  the  departments  of 
the  university  are  so  interrelated  to  theology  that  they 
cannot  do  their  full  work  without  theology.     If  a  way 


210     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OP  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

can  be  found  to  combine  the  advantages  of  an  inde- 
pendent theological  school  with  the  advantages  of  a 
university  connection,  we  may  hope  to  enter  upon  a  new 
era  of  theological  education,  in  which  the  hostility  be- 
tween Science  and  Religion,  Philosophy  and  Theology, 
will  pass  away,  and  Theology  itself  expand  with  the 
appropriation  of  fresh  material  from  all  departments  of 
human  investigation.^ 

In  recent  years  seminaries  not  attached  to  universities 
have  been  making  connections  with  universities. 

In  Great  Britain,  Mansfield  and  Manchester  Colleges 
have  been  affiliated  with  Oxford  University,  Cheshunt 
with  Cambridge,  King's  College,  the  Highbury  School 
of  Divinity,  New  College,  and  Hackney  with  London 
University.  Other  denominational  colleges  have  been 
brought  into  connection  with  the  universities  of  Wales, 
Manchester,  Leeds  and  Bristol.  The  movement  is  leading 
to  further  experiments  in  Canada  and  Australia.^  It 
was  begun  in  New  York  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary 
a  few  years  ago  (1890),  when  an  arrangement  was  made 
with  Columbia,  into  which  the  General  Theological 
Seminary  and  New  York  University  subsequently  came, 
by  which  the  students  of  the  seminaries  were  enabled 
to  attend  courses  in  the  universities.  The  Episcopal 
Divinity  School  at  Cambridge  has  entered  into  friendly 
relations  with  Harvard,  and  the  Philadelphia  Divinity 
School  with  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Andover 
Seminary,  removing  to  Cambridge  (1908),  has  been 
affiliated  with  both  Harvard  University  and  the  Divinity 
School.  The  Baptist  Seminary  at  Chicago  has  become 
the  theological  department  of  Chicago  University. 

1  Vide  Briggs,  'Theological  Education  and  its  Needs,'  in  The  Forum, 
1892,  vol.  xii.  pp.  638  seq. ;  '  Ideal  of  the  Study  of  Theology,'  in 
Dedication  of  union  Theological  Seminary,  pp.  121  seq.  ;  '  The 
Scope  of  Theology,'  in  American  Journal  of  Theology,  1897,  vol.  l 
pp.  3S  seq. 

3  Vide  W.  A.  Brown,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  v.  pp.  593  seq. 


CH.  IV.]         IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  211 

13.  The  field  of  Theology  is  now  so  vast  that  it  is 
impossible  to  cover  it  in  three  years.  Graduate  schools 
are  needed,  in  which  the  study  of  Theology  may  be  carried 
on  to  the  highest  degree  of  excellence  and  with  the  most 
comprehensive  thoroughness. 

Theological  education  is  very  far  from  its  ideal.  The 
field  of  study  has  become  so  vast  that  it  is  no  longer 
possible  for  the  theological  student  to  acquire  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  theology  in  a  three  years'  course.  Some 
of  the  seminaries  are  now  offering  graduate  courses. 
But  the  study  of  theology  is  still  very  defective  in  the 
great  majority  of  the  theological  schools,  and  is  still  far 
from  perfection  in  those  most  richly  endowed  and 
manned.  Theology,  like  law  and  medicine,  can  no 
longer  do  its  work  ^vithout  the  graduate  school,  where 
the  choicest  men  may  give  from  two  to  four  additional 
years  to  the  more  comprehensive  and  difficult  branches 
of  study.^  The  age  of  irenics  has  come — an  age  whose 
supreme  conception  of  God  is  love,  whose  highest 
estimation  of  Christ  is  love,  whose  ideal  of  Christian 
perfection  is  love.  The  great  fields  of  study  that  invite 
the  modern  student  of  theology  are  Christian  Ethics, 
Christian  Sociology,  Christian  Eschatology,  and  Christian 
Irenics.  Upon  these  studies  of  the  graduate  school  of 
theology  to  a  great  extent  depends  the  future  of  Chris- 
tianity throughout  the  world.* 

14.  The  study  of  Theology  is  the  highest,  the  most 
comprehensive,  the  most  difficult,  and  the  most  important  of 

J  Union  Theological  Seminary  was  the  first  to  establish  a  graduate 
department,  with  graduate  professors  and  courses  leading  to  a  doctorate 
of  theology.  This  action,  and  that  which  brought  the  seminary  into 
connection  with  the  New  York  universities,  were  a  partial  fulfilment  of 
ideals  long  cherished  and  worked  for  by  Dr.  Briggs,  who  gave  his  last 
years  as  a  teacher  of  theology  to  building  up  a  graduate  school. 

'  Vide  Bri^'gs,  The  Forum,  vol.  xii.  pp.  638  siq.  ;  Dedication  of  the 
New  Buildings  of  the  Union  Theuloyical  Seminary,  pp.  120  seq. ; 
American  Journal  of  Theology,  toI.  viii.  pp.  433  sea.,  450  stq. 


212     HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY    [pt.  n. 

all  studies  ;  for  it  is  the  study  of  God,  and  of  all  things  in 
their  relations  to  God, 

Theology  can  have  no  other  final  aim  than  God 
Himself,  communion  with  God,  knowledge  of  God,  and 
the  service  of  God.  Upon  theology  more  than  upon 
any  other  study  the  future  of  humanity  depends.  It 
is  a  study  which  brings  into  fellowship  with  prophets 
and  apostles,  with  all  the  saints,  with  Jesus  Christ,  and 
with  God  the  Heavenly  Father.  It  is  a  study  which 
calls  forth  all  that  is  best  within  a  man — his  moral  and 
religious,  as  well  as  his  intellectual  powers.  It  is  a 
study  which,  in  all  its  parts,  may  be  animate  with  love 
to  God  and  love  to  mankind.  It  is  a  study  wliich 
men  may  share  with  angels  and  the  spirits  of  the  blessed. 
It  is  a  study  which  knows  no  end.  Other  studies  will 
pass  away  with  the  decay  of  the  body  and  departure  from 
this  world  ;  but  the  study  of  theology,  begun  in  this 
world,  will  go  on  forever,  richer,  fuller,  and  more  glorious, 
in  any  and  every  world,  in  any  and  every  dispensation, 
in  which  God  may  place  us  through  all  the  ages  of 
eternity. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 

Deane,  a.  T.     Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  or  Sketches  of 

Education  from  the  Christian  Era  to  the  Council  of  Trent. 

1867,  1881,  1910. 
GsAVES,  F.  p.     A  History  of  Education  before  the  Middle  Ages. 

1909. 
Graves.     A  History  of  Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 

Transition  to  Modern  Times.     1910. 
Kkaus,  F.  X.     Uher  das  Studium  der  Theologie  sonst  und  jeizt. 

18902. 

Sandys,  J.  E.    A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship.    3  vols.    1903- 

1908. 
SiEBENGARTNEE,  M.     Schriftcu  uud  Einrichtungcn  zur  Biklung 

der  Geistlichen.     1902. 
Theiner,  a.     Geschichte  der  geistlichen  Bildungsanstalten.     1835. 

SCHOOLS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH 

Bigg,  C.     The  Christian  Platonists  of  Alexandria.     1886. 

Chabot,  J.  B.     UEcole  de  Nisihe.     1896. 

Duval,   R.     Histoire  politique,   religieuse   et  litteraire  d'Edesse. 

1892. 
GuERiCKE,  H.  E.  F.     De  schola  quae   Alexandrice  floruit  cate- 

chetica.     1824-1825. 
Hergenrother,  p.     Die  antiochenische  Schule.     1866. 
KiHN,  H.     Die  Bedeutung  der  antiochenischen  Schule  auf  dem 

exegetischen  Gehiete,  nebst  einer  Ahhandlung  iiber  die  aliesten 

christlichen   Schulen,    besonders   zu   Antiochia,    Edessa   und 

Nisibis.     1865-1866. 
Kthn.     Theodor   von   Mopsuestia   und   Junilius   Africanus   als 

Exegeten.     1880. 

KiNQSLEY,  C.     Alexandria  and  her  SchooU.     1854. 

213 


214        HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY 

Matter,  J.     Essai  historique  sur  Vecole  d'Alexandrie.     2  vols. 
1820. 

Moore,  G.  F.    '  The  Theological  School  at  Nisibis,'  in  Studies  in 

the  History  of  Religions.     1912. 
Seitz,  K.     Die  Schule  von  Gaza.     1892. 

Vacherot,  E.     Histoire  critique  de  Vecole  d' Alexandrie.     3  vols. 
1846-1851. 

THE  PALATINE,  CATHEDRAL,  AND  MONASTIC 
SCHOOLS 

Bourret,  J.  C.  E.    UEcole  chretienne  de  Siville,  sous  la  monarchie 

des  Visigoths.     1855. 
Clerval,  a.     Les  ecoles  de  Chartres  au  moyen  dge,  du  V^  au 

X  VP  siecle. 
Cooper-Marsdin,  a.     The  School  of  Lhins. 
Healy,  J.     Insula  sanctorum  et  doctorum,  or  Ireland's  Ancient 

Schools  and  Scholars.     1890. 
DouAis,   C.     Essai  sur  V Organisation  des  Etudes  dans  VOrdre 

des  Frlres  Frtcheurs  au  IS''  et  au  IJ).^  Siecle.     1884. 
Kaufmann,  G.    '  Rhetorenschulen  und  Klosterschulen  in  Gallien 

wahrend   des   V.   und   VI.   Jahrhunderts,'    in  Historisches 

Taschenhuch.     1869. 

Maitre,  L.     Les  icoles  Spiscopales  et  monastiques  de  VOccident 
[768-1180).     1866. 

MiCHAUD,  E.     Guillaume  de  Champaux  et  les  icoles  de  Paris  au 
XIP  siecle.     1867. 

MuLLiNGER,  J.  B.     The  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great,  and  the 

Restoration  of  Education  in  the  Ninth  Century.     1877,  1911. 
Robert,  G.     Les  icoles  et  V enseignement  de  la  thSologie  pendant 

la  premiere  moitie  du  XI P  specie.     1909. 
Specht,  F.  a.     Geschichte  des  Unterrichtswesens  in  Deutschland 

von  den  dltesten  Zeiten  bis  zur  Mitte  des  XIII.  Jahrhunderts. 

1885. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  PARIS  AND  THE  GREAT 
SCHOLASTICS 

Denifle,  H.     Die  Entstehung  der  Universitiiten  des  Mittelalters 
his    400.     1885. 

Denifle.     Les  Univer sites  franqaises  au  moyen  dge.     1892. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  215 

Feret,  p.     La  FacuUe  de  iheologie  de  Paris  et  ses  docteurs  les 

plus  celebres.     11  vols.     1894-1910. 
Hugo  of  St.  Victor  (f  1141).     Didascalion. 
Poole,  R.  L.     Illustrations  of  the  History  of  Medieval  Thought  in 

the  Departments  of  Theology  and  Ecclesiastical  Politics.     1884. 
Rashdall,  H.     The  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Vol.  i.  (Paris),  1895. 


THE  UNIVERSITIES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  THE 
BRITISH  SCHOLASTICS 

Brodrick,  G.  C.     a  History  of  the  University  of  Oxford.     [1887.] 
HuBER,  V.  A.    The  English  Universities  (an  abridged  translation), 

ed.  F.  W.  Newman.     2  vols.,  1843. 
MuLUNGER.  J.  B.    History  of  the  University  of  Cambridge.    2  vols., 

1873-1883;   3  vols.,  1911. 
Parker,  J.     The  Early  History  of  Oxford.     Oxford  Historical 

Society  Publications,  vol.  iii.,  1885. 
Rashdall,  H.     The  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Vol.  ii.  Part  11.  (*  English  Universities '),  1895. 


THE  UNIVERSITIES  OF  GERIVIANY,  BOHEMIA,  AND 
GERMAN  SWITZERLAND 

Andreae,  J.     Oratio  de  studio  sacrariim  litterarum.     1576. 
Aschlbach,    J.     Geschichte   der    Wiener    Universitdt   im   ersten 

Jahrhundert  ihres  Bestehens.    2  vols.     1865-1877. 
Bauch,  G.     Die  Universitdt  Erfurt  im  Zeitalter  des  Fruhhumxinis- 

mus.     1904. 
BoK,  A.  F.     Geschichte-  der  .  .  ,  Universitdt  zu  Tubingen.     1774. 
Brieger,  T.     Die  theologischen  Promotionen  auf  der  Universitdt 

Leipzig,  1428-1530.     1890. 
HoFLER,  C.  A.  C.     Magister  Johannes  Hus  und  der  Abzug  der 

deutschen  Professoren  und  Studenten  aus  Prog,  1^09.     1864. 
Kampschulte,   F.   W.     Die   Universitdt  Erfurt  in  ihrem    Ver- 

hdltnis   zum   Humanismus   und   der   Reformation.     2  vols. 

1858-1860. 
Kaufmaxn,  G.     Geschichte  der  deutschen  Universitdten.     2  vols. 

1888-1896. 


216        HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY 

KosEGARTEN,  J.   G.   L.     GescMchte  der   Universitdt  Greifswald. 

1857. 
Meiners,  C.     GescMchte  der  Entstehung  und  Entwichelung  der 

hohen  Schulen  unseres  Erdteils.     4  vols.     1802-1805. 
MuTHER,    T.     Aus    dem    UniversiUits-  und    Gelehrtenleben    im 

Zeitalter  der  Reformation.     1866. 
Paulsen,  F.     The   German    Universities   (translated   from   the 

German  edition  of  1902).     1906. 
Paulsen.     GescMchte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts  auf  den  deutschen 

Schulen  und  Universitdten  vom  Ausgang  des  Mittelalters  his 

zur  Gegenwart.     2  vols.     1896. 
Prantl,  C.  v.      GescMchte  der  Ludwig- Maximilians -Universitdt 

in  Ingolstadt,  Landshut,  Milnchen.     2  vols.     1872. 
Stocker.     Die  theologische  Fakultdt  in  Heidelberg,   1386-1886, 

1886. 
Thorbecke,    a.     Die   dlteste   Zeii   der    Universitdt   Heidelberg, 

1386.1U0.     1886. 
VisCHER,  W.     GescMchte  der  Universitdt  Basel  von  der  Griindung 

1460  bis  zur  Reformation  1529.     1860. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  REFORMERS  ON  THEO- 
LOGICAL EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY  AND  GERMAN 
SWITZERLAND 

Andreae,  J.     Oratio  de  instauratione  studii  theologici  in  academia 

Witebergensi.     1511. 
Brustlein,  J.     Luther s  Einfluss  auf  das   V olksschulwesen  und 

den  Religionsunterricht.     1852. 
Greving,  IL  M.  N.  J.     Johann  Eck  als  junger  Gelehrter.     1906. 
Heppe,  H.    PMlipp  Melanchthon,  der  Lehrer  Deutschlands.    1860. 
Koch,  L.     PMUpp  Melanchthon' s  Schola  Privata.     1859. 
Luther,   M.     Methodus   studii   theologici   interprete   Hieronymo 

Wellero  .  .  .  cura  I.  G.  lochii.     1726. 
Luther.     Regulce  de   theologies   studio   recte  instituendo,  ed.  F, 

Delitzsch.     1842. 
Luther.     Anweisung  zum  rechten  Studium  der  Theologie  .  ,  • 

von  Hieron.  Weller.     1727,  1881. 
Melanchthon,  P.     Brevis  discendce  theologice  ratio.     1530. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     Luther  on  Education.     1889. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  217 

Planck,  A.     Melanchthon,  Prceceptor  Germanice,     1860. 

Porta,  C.     Pastorale  Lutheri.     1582,  1842. 

RiJCKERT,    0.     Zwingli's    Ideen    zur    Erziehung    und   Bildung, 

1900. 
Weller,    H.      Consilium   de   studio    theologice    rite    instituendo 

ac  feliciter  continvundo  modoque  rede  disyonendi  et  habendi 

condones.     1561,  1565,  1569,  1614:,  1617. 
Weller.     Ratio  formandi  studii  theologici.     1563. 
Woodward,   W.   A.     Desiderius  Erasmus  concerning  the  Aim 

and  Method  of  Education.     1904. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  CALVIN  AT  GENEVA  AND  THE 
FRENCH  ACADEMIES 

AuziERE,  L.    Essai  historique  sur  lesfacultes  de  theologie  de  Saumur 

et  de  Sedan.     1836. 
Baird,    H.    M.      '  Notes   on    Theological    Education    in    the 

Reformed  Churches  of  France  and  French  Switzerland,'  in 

Presbyterian  Review,  January  1880,  vol.  i.  pp.  85  seq. 
BoRGEAUD,  C,    Histoire  de  VUniversite  de  Geneve.    2  vols.    1900- 

1909. 
BouRCHENiN,  D.     tltude  sur  les  academies  protestantes  en  France 

auXVP  etau  XVIP  siecle.     1882. 
CoLANi,  T.     UeduxMtion  protestante.     1858. 
Felice,  P.  de.    Les  Protestants  d' autrefois.    4  vols.    1897-1902. 

JESUIT  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 

Cambilhon,    J.     Relatio    de    studiis    lesuitarum   ahstrusiorihus. 

1608. 
Gretzer,  J.     Relatio  de  studiis  lesuitarum  ahstrusiorihus.     1609. 
Hughes,  T.     Loyola  and  the  Educational  System  of  the  Jesuits. 

1892,  1907. 
Ignacio   de   Loyola.     Epistolce  et  instructiones^   ed.   Matriti, 

1903  :   V.  Monumenta  Ignatiana,  Series  i.,  torn.  1.     1908. 
Pachtler,  G.  M.     Ratio   studiorum  et  institutiones  scholasticcB 

Societatis    lesu ;     v.    Monumenta     Germanics    Pcedagogica. 

Vols,  ii.,  v.,  ix.,  xvi.     1887-1894. 
Steinhuber,  a.     Geschichte  des  Kollegium  Germanikum-Hunga- 

rikim  in  Rom.     2  vols.     1893-1894,  1906. 


218        HISTORY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  SEMINARIES  OF  THE  COUNCIL 

OF  TRENT 

Bellesheim,  a.     Wilhelm  Cardinal  Allen  und  die  englischen 

Seminar e  auf  dem  Festlande.     1885. 
BoRROMEO,  C.     Pastorum  instructionea.     1586,  1701. 
Dancoisne,^  L.     Histoire  des  etablissements  religieux  hritanniques 

fondes  a  Douai  avant  la  revolution  frangaise.     1880. 
Gerard,  J.     Stonyhurst  College,  Its  Life  beyond  the  Seas,  1502- 

1794,  d'nd  on  English  soil,  1794-1894.     1894. 
HoGAN,  J.  B.     Clerical  Studies.     1898. 

Letourneau,  G.    Histoire  du  Seminaire  d' Angers.    3  vols.    1893- 
1895. 

Theiner,  a.     II  Seminario  ecclesiastico.     1834. 

Theiner.     Geschichte  der  geistlichen  Bildungsanstalten.     1835. 

Themistor,  G.     Die  Bildung  und  Erziehung  der  Geistlichen  nach 

katholischen  Grundsdtzen.     1884. 
ZsCHOKKE,    H.     Die   theologischen   Studien   und   Anstalten   der 

katholischen  Kirche  in  Oesterreich.     1894. 
ZwiCKENPFLUG,  R.    Die  Bildung  der  Geistlichen.    4  vols.    1844. 


to    '^.'hH.rny^fi^ 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  II 


AbbadiG.  160. 

Abbot,  Ezra,  190. 

Abclard,  22,  23.  29  /.,  32  /.,  36, 

Achelis,  114,  201. 

Adalhard  of  Corbie,  7  /. 

Adam  du  Petit  Pont,  36  /. 

Adelmann  of  Liege,  24. 

Adeney,  70/.,  141,  142,  207. 

.^gidius  de  Columna,  59, 

Agnellus  of  Pisa,  47. 

Agobard  of  Lyons,  10. 

Agricola,  Rudolphus,  87,  "90,  96, 

97,  113. 
Ailly,  Pierre  D',  78  /.,  94. 
Alberic  of  Rlieiras,  22,  36  /, 
Albertus  Magnus,  53  /. 
Alcuin,  1  /.,  4  /.,  8.  9. 
Aldus  Manutlus,  89,  90, 
Aleander,  95. 
Alexander  II,  20. 
Alexander  III,  42. 
Alexander  of  Hales,  50  /.,  54,  57, 

59. 
Alfonso  of  Aragon,  88. 
Alfred  the  Great,  12,  15, 
Allatius,  Leo,  150. 
AUen  (Cardinal),  140.  . 
Almaric  of  Bena,  43. 
Amadeus  of  Savoy  (Felix  V),  79., 
Ames,  William,  152,  157. 
Ammon,  C.  F.,  181,  185. 
Amyraut,  158,  159. 
Anastasius  Bibliothecarius,  11. 
Andrea3,  Jacob,  115,  141,  215  /. 
Andrewes,  Lancelot,  154. 
Anselm  of  Canterbury,  19  /.,  26, 

54,  64. 
Anselm  of  Laon,  20.  22  /.,  28,  29, 

32,  34. 
Anselm  of  Lucca,  41, 
Anton,  167. 
Aquinas,  Thomas,  47,  53  /.,  59, 

63,  66/.,  75,  83,  107.  115.  125/., 

13'>.  140,  205. 

''    C^     .antinople. 


Aristotle,  28,  30,  33,  36,  38,  43  /., 
51,  56/.,  61  /.,  77,  86/.,  95,  100. 
102,  143,  145,  153,  162  /.,  179. 

Arminius,  130,  155  /. 

Amaud,  192. 

Amauld,  Antoine,  150. 

Amulf  of  Orleans,  15. 

Asclilbach,  215, 

Assemani,  150  /. 

Astruc.  180. 

Athanasius,  148. 

Augusti,  J.  C.  W.,  194. 

Augustine  of  Hippo,  6,  12,  20,  28, 
51,  54,  70,  101,  106,  110. 

Augustine  of  Rome,  76. 

Auriol,  Pierre,  64. 

Aurogallus,  109,  111. 

Auziere,  217. 

Averroes,  43,  65,  88. 

Avicenna.  43.  58,  77.  87. 

Bacon.  Francis.  161  /. 
Bacon,  Rol^ert,  46. 
Bacon,  Roger,  47.  52,  57  /. 
Baer,  190. 
Baetligen,  190.  191. 
Baird.  H.  M.,  204,  217. 
BaU,  Jolm,  153. 
Ballerini,  13. 
BalUol,  Jolm  de,  40. 
Balsamon,  Theodore,  39. 
Baluze,  147. 
BandincUi,  Roland,  42. 
Bandiuus,  34. 
Barclay.  Robert,  155. 
Bardenliewer,  194  /. 
Bar-Hebrseus,  59  /. 
Baring-Gould.  195. 
Barlaam,  85. 
Bameveldt,  156. 
Baronius,  Caesar,  141,  149,  181. 
Basnage,  Jacques.  160,  181. 
Batiffol,  194. 
Bauch,  215. 
Baudissin.  191. 
Baumgarten,  S.  J.,  178.  ISO. 


219 


220 


INDEX  TO  VOL.   II 


Baur,  F.  C.  191.  193.  196,  200. 

Baur,  G.  L.,  191. 

Baxter,  Richard,  154,  160,  167. 

Bayle,  Pierre,  158. 

Beavilieu,  Le  Blanc  de,  158. 

Becket,  Thomas  h.,  37. 

Bede,  12,  140. 

Beer.  G.,  190. 

Bellamy.  Joseph,  173. 

Bellarmine,  147. 

Belleshcim,  A..  218. 

Benedict  of  Nursia,  5. 

Benedict  XIII,  79. 

Bengel,  J.  A.,  166/.,  180. 

Bennett,  C.  W.,  194. 

Benrath,  88. 

Bontlcy,  Richard,  180. 

Benzmger,  191. 

Bercliorius,  Peter,  75. 

Berengar  of  Tours,  21,  25. 

Bernard  of  Chartres,  26  /.,  32. 

Bernard  of  Clau-vaux,   19  /.,  22, 

29,  31  /. 
Bemardine  of  Siena,  76. 
Bemo  of  Clmiy,  14. 
Bertheau,  191. 
Beriile,  Pierre  de,  149. 
Bessarion  of  Nicaja,  87,  96. 
Beveridge,  William,  198. 
Beyschlag,  191. 
Beza,   69,   119,    127,    129  /.,   131. 

153.  155. 
Bibliander,  118/. 
Biedermann,  A.  E.,  198. 
Biel,  Gabriel,  65. 
Bigg,  C,  213. 
Bilot,  198. 

Bingham,  Joseph,  155,  181. 
Binterim,  194. 
Blant,  E.  Le,  195. 
Blass,  190. 

Blaurer,  Ambrose,  107. 
Bleek,  190. 
Blondel.  13. 
Blunt,  J.  J.,  197. 
Boccaccio.  85. 
Boethius.  12,  32,  33,  51. 
Bok,  A.  F.,  215. 
BoUand,  Jan,  147. 
Bomberg,  103/. 
Bona  Ventura,  53  /.,  59,  83. 
Bonet-Maury,  204. 
Boniface  VIII,  42. 
Borgeaud,  217. 
Borromeo,  Carlo.  138/.,  218. 
Bossuet,  149  /. 


Bottcher,  189. 

Bourchenm,  158,  161,  217. 

Bourret.  214. 

Bracciolini,  73. 

Brace,  C.  L.,  196. 

Bradwardine,  Thomas,  66,  71. 

Breithaupt,  167. 

Brenz,  Jolin,  114. 

Brieger,  215. 

Briggs,  C.  A..  189  /.,  196,  200  /. 

Bright.  W..  195  /. 

Brinkmeler,  194. 

Brockmann,  194. 

Brodrick,  215. 

Brook,  B.,  195. 

Brooke,  A.  E.,  190. 

Brown,  Francis,  189.  191. 

Brown,  W.  A..  187,  203,  205,  207, 

210. 
Bruno  of  Cologne,  14  /. 
Bruno  (Leo  IX),  17/.  , 
Bruno,  St.,  19. 
Briistlein,  216. 
Bucer.  Martin,  116,  119,  121  /., 

130,  133. 
Budseus  (Bude),  William,  95. 
Buddeus,  J.  F..  181. 
Buel.  199. 
Bugenhagen,   Johann,    109,     111, 

113. 
Bullinger,  Helnrich,   117  /.,   123, 

129  /.      - 
Bunyan.  John,  154. 
Burchard  of  Worms,  41. 
Buridan,  John,  64. 
Busleiden,  92. 
Butler,  Joseph,  163. 
Buttmann.  189. 
Buxtorf,  John,  Senior,  165. 
Buxtorf,  John,  Jimior,  160,  165. 
Byfield.  Nicholas,  153. 

Cabasilas,  Nicolas,  70. 

Cabrol,  195. 

Cajetan,  Thomas  de  Vio,  126. 

Calamy.  Edmund,  152/.,  160. 

CaUxtus  III.  88. 

CaUxtus,  George,  163  /.,  166,  181. 

Calmet,  A.,  148,  181. 

Calovlus,  164. 

Calvin,  20.  95,  105  /.,  119  /.,  126 

/,  134,  136.  142,  155. 
Cambilhon.  217. 
Camerarius,  97,  114. 
Cameron,  John,  158,  159. 
Cango,  C.  Du,  147. 


INDEX  TO  VOL.   II 


221 


Canisius.  Peter,  135,  139. 
Cano.  Melcliior,  120. 
Capito,  Wolfgang,  120,  121  /. 
Cappell,  Jacques,  158,  159. 
Cappell,  Louis,  Senior,  155,  158. 

159. 
Cappell,  Louis,  Jimior,  156.  159  /. 
Capreolvis,  Johannes,  66  /. 
Cartwriglit.  Thomas,  152  /. 
Casaubon,  Isaac.  160. 
Caspar!,  C.  E..  192. 
Casparl,  C.  P.,  200. 
Cassander,  George,  124. 
Cassiodorus,  6. 
Cato,  73. 

Cave,  Alfred.  189. 
Cave,  William,  154. 
CeiUier,  Remy,  148. 
Ceriani,  190. 
Chabot,  213. 
Chalmers,  Thomas,  199. 
Chamier,  Daniel,  159,  160. 
Chandieu,  130. 
Charlemagne,  1  /.,  8  /.,  25. 
Charles  the  Bold.  11. 
Charles  I  of  England,  142. 
Chastel,  193. 
Chaimcey,  Charles,  174. 
Chauncey,  Isaac,  174. 
Chayim.  Jacob  ben,  103,  123. 
Cheetham,  194. 
Chemnitz,  Martin,  113. 
Chillingworth,  William.  154. 
Choisy,  131. 
ChristUeb,  174. 
Christoflfel,  118. 
Chrysostom,  38,  123.  148. 
Chytneus,  114. 
Cicero,  58. 
Clarisse,  189. 

Clarke,  Samuel,  174,  175,  176. 
Clarke,  W.  N.,  199. 
Claude,  Jean,  159. 
Claudius  of  Turin,  10. 
Clemanges,  Nicolaus  de,  80,  83  /., 

94. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  200. 
Clement  of  Ireland.  4,  11. 
Clement  IV,  58. 
Clement  V,  42. 
Clement  VII,  78. 
Clericus  (Le  Clerc),  156. 
Clerval.  24  /.,  27  /..  32  /..  36.  38. 

214. 
Cluniac,  Robert,  19. 
Cocceius,  157.  160. 


Cohrs,  69,  135. 

Colanl,  217. 

Colenso,  190. 

Colet,  John,  91,  99  /.,  102,  132. 

Combefls,  149. 

Comenius,  Amos,  161,  168. 

Conring,  Hermann,  164. 

Constantino,  12  /.,  88. 

Cooper-Marsdin,  214. 

Copernicus,  161. 

Cordier,  Mathurin,  126  /. 

Cornehus  Haga,  142. 

Comill,  190. 

Cosin,  John,  154. 

Cossart,  147. 

Cot^Uer,  149. 

Coverdale,  Miles,  132. 

Cranmer,  Thomas,  120.  122,  131/. 

Creighton.  195. 

Crgvier,  23. 

Crispin,  Milo,  20. 

Crooks,  189. 

Cruciger,  109. 

Cruel,  68. 

Crusius,  141. 

Cudworth,  Ralph,  166. 

Cunningham,  John,  196. 

Cimningham,  William,  199. 

Cusanus,  Nicolaus,  90. 

Cyril  Lucar.  140  /. 

D'Achery  (Dacherius),  84.  148. 
Dancoisne,  218. 

Daneau,  Lambert,  129.  155,  158. 
Daniel,  H.  A.,  195. 
Dante,  7,  35. 
Danz,  195. 
Darling.  195. 

Davidson,  A.  B.,  189,  192, 
Davidson,  Samuel.  190. 
DeUsle,  194. 
Delitzsch,  190. 
Dempster,  Thomas,  100. 
Denifle,  44,  69,  195,  214. 
Denzinger.  21,  68,  200. 
Descartas,  140,  102. 
Deusdedit  (Cardinal).  41., 
Dexter,  196. 
Dick,  199. 

Dickinson,  Jonathan,  172  /. 
Diego  de  Azevedo,  46. 
Dieu,  Louis  de,  156. 
Dillmann,  192. 
Dinant,  David  de.  43. 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  11,  35, 
51,  54,  64. 


222 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  II 


Dixon,  Thomas,  174. 

Dodd,  195. 

Doddridge,  Philip,  175. 

DoIUnger,  143.  193,  197. 

Dominic,  St.,  46. 

Donne,  John,  154. 

Doolittle,  Thomas.  174. 

Domer.  August,  188. 

Domer,  Isaac  A.,  112,  165.  186/., 

191.  196,  198,  199. 
Dositheus,  140,  141. 
Douais,  214. 
Drane,  52,  213. 
Driver,  S.  R.,  189,  19a 
Drimimond,  J.,  189. 
Drusius  (Van  den  Driesche),  155. 
Ducas,  Demetrius,  125. 
Duchesne,  194,  195,  197. 
Duff,  A..  192. 
Dimgal.  4,  11. 
Dims  Scotus,   59,   61  /.,   64,   83, 

102. 
Du  Pin.  L.  E..  150. 
Duplessis-Mornay,  159. 
Durand  of  Saint  Pourcain,  63. 
Durie,  Jolm,  153. 
Duval,  213. 

Ebers,  191. 

Ebert,  195. 

Ebrard,  198. 

Ecl£,  John,  96,   105  /.,   108,   116, 

123  /.,  136. 
Eckhart,  67  /. 
Edward  VI,  133  /. 
Edwards,  Jonathan,  171,  172  /. 
Egli,  120,  195. 
Ehrle.  195. 

Eichhom,  13,  178,  180.  190. 
Emhard  of  FiUda,  7. 
Emlyn,  Thomas.  176. 
Ephrsem  Syrus.  151. 
Episcopius,  156. 
Erasmus,  88/..  90/,  105,  110,  113. 

115  /.,  122.  124.  131.  133.  155. 

156. 
Erigena,  John  Scotus,  8,  11  /.,  21. 
Erman.  191. 
Emcsti.  178,  181. 
Erpenius,  156. 
Ersch,  195, 
Ersldne,  169,  177. 
Eugene  II,  11. 
Eugene  III,  23. 
Eugene  IV,  67.  79. 
Eusebius,  123. 


Eustathius  of  Thessalonica.  38  /. 
Euthymius  Zigabenus.  38. 
Ewald,  189  /. 

Faber,  Peter,  135.  139. 

Faber  Stapulensis  (Lefevre  d'Eta- 

ples),  95,  127. 
Fabricius.  J.  A.,  182, 
Fagius,  Paulus,  121.  123,  133. 
Farel,  Wilham,  127. 
Farrar,  F.  W..  197. 
Fawkes,  Guy,  144. 
Febronius    (Von   Hontheim),   13, 

147. 
F61ice,  217. 
FeUx  V,  79. 
FeUx  of  Urgel,  3,  10. 
Fenelon,  151. 
Feret.  22  /.,  47.  49  /.,  55.  59.  64. 

67.  84,  215. 
Fichte,  185. 

Fisher  of  Rochester,  98,  101,  105. 
Fisher.  G.  P.,  29.  172.   193.  196. 

197. 
Flacius,  Matthias  (lUyricus),  113. 
Fleming,  30. 

Fletcher  of  Madeley.  170. 
Fleury,  Claude.  148. 
Fltigge,  28,  56,  76. 
Fox,  George,  155. 
Fox,  Richard,  102. 
Foxe,  John.  133. 
Francis  of  Assisi.  47,  62. 
Francke,  A.  H..  167  /..  177. 
Francois  de  Sales.  139.  151. 
Frank  of  Weimar,  111. 
Frederick  I  of  Prussia.  165. 
FreUnghuysen,  Jacob,  170. 
Friedberg,  195. 
Friedrich.  J..  196. 
Froben.  92. 
Froude.  195. 

Fulbert  of  Chartros.  15,  24  /. 
Fulton,  195. 

Gabler.  181.  192. 
Galen,  60,  77. 
Galileo,  161. 
Garrucci.  194. 
Gass,  195.  199. 
Gautier,  192. 
Gebhardt,  190,  194. 
Geddes,  190. 
Geier,  Martin,  164. 
Gerard.  J..  218. 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  II 


223 


Gerbert  of  Aurillac  (Silvester  II), 

14  /..  24. 
Gerbert,  Martin,  147. 
Gerhard,  Johann,  164. 
Gerhart,  E.  V.,  199. 
Gemler  of  Basel,  164  /. 
Gerson.  Joirn,  55,  70,  78  /.,  83,  90, 

94,  115. 
Gesenius,  189,  190. 
Gieseler.  12/.,  106/.,  109/.,  114, 

117,  122,  142.  148/.,  159.  164. 

168.  185,  193. 
Gilbert  de  la  Porr6e,  22, 26  /. ,  3 1  /. . 

36/. 
Ginsburg,  190. 
Giraldus  Cambrensls,  45,  51. 
Gla,  195. 
Glassius,  S.,  164. 
Goar,  149. 
Gomarus,  156. 
Goodwin,  Thomas,  174. 
Gorran,  Nicolaus  de,  47. 
Gotteschalk,  6,  12. 
Gouge,  William,  152  /. 
Gower,  51. 
Grabe,  J.  E.,  164. 
Graf.  A..  201. 
Graf.  K.  H..  190. 
Gratlan.  41  /. 
Green.  W.  H.,  189. 
Gregory  the  Great,  6,  12. 
Gregory  VI,  17. 
Gregory  IX,  42,  44,  48. 
Gregory  XII,  79. 
Gregory  XVI,  69. 
Gregory.  C.  R.,  190. 
Gretzer,  J..  217. 
Greving.  124.  216. 
Griesbach,  180. 
Grimm,  189. 

Grocyn,  William,  99,  102. 
Groote,  Gerhard,  69  /.,  90. 
Gropper,  John,  124. 
Grotefend,  194. 
Grotius,  Hugo.  156. 
Grundemann,  194. 
Griitzmacher,  47. 
Grynseus,  Simon.   116,   122.   128, 

155. 
Gualbert  of  Vallombrosa.  19. 
Guericke,  213. 
Guerin,  192 
Guibert  de  Nogent,  22,  23. 

Haddan,  195. 

Hagenbach,  188, 189,193, 195. 197. 


Hahn,  4. 

Hales,  John,  155. 

HaU.  C.  C,  199. 

Hall,  Joseph,  131,  152. 

Hamilton.  Patrick,  133  /. 

Hammond,  C.  E.,  195. 

Hammond,  Henry,  155,  157. 

Hanbury,  196. 

Hannah,  J.,  189. 

Hardt,  Von  der.  80. 

Harduin.  147. 

Hardwick,  197. 

Harless.  188. 

Harms.  201. 

Hamack,  28,  193  /.,  196. 

Harper,  W.  R.,  189. 

Harris,  Rendal,  190. 

Harvey.  161. 

Hase.  193.  198,  200. 

Hauck,  196. 

Haupt.  P..  190. 

Hausrath.  191. 

Hausser.  197. 

Havemick,  190. 

Healy.  214. 

Hedio,  Caspar,  121/. 

Hefele,  195. 

Hegel,  68.  185. 

Hegius,  Alexander,  96,  97. 

Heidegger  of  Ztirich,  164  /. 

Heimbucher,  196. 

Heinrici,  126,  149,  188. 

Helie.  Pierre,  36. 

Hemmingsen,  Niels,  115,  152. 

Hengstenberg,  190. 

Henry  II  of  England,  45. 

Henry    VIII     of    England.    100, 

132. 
Henry  the  Fowler,  15. 
Henry  of  Glaris,  93. 
Henry.  Matthew,  174. 
Heppe,  198,  216. 
Herbert,  George,  154. 
Herder,  180. 
Herentalius,  Peter,  75. 
Hergenrother,  195,  213. 
Herluin,  St.,  20. 
Hermann  of  Cologne,  122.  124. 
Hermonj-mus.  95. 
Herrlinger,  112. 
Herrmann.  W..  198. 
Hervffius  Natalis.  66. 
Hess,  181. 
Hetherington,  196. 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  32. 
Hildebert  of  Tours,  28. 


224 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  II 


Hildebrand    (Gregory   VII),    15, 

17  /.,  21,  40. 
Hildegaire,  24. 
Hill,  199. 

Hincmar  of  Rheims,  9. 
Hinterberger,  201. 
Hippocrates,  60,  77. 
Hirscher,  199. 
Hobbes,  162. 
Hodge,  A.  A.,  199. 
Hodge,  Charles,  199. 
Hofler,  215. 
Hofmann,  188. 
Hofstede  de  Groot,  189. 
Hogan,  218. 
Holcot,  Robert,  64  /. 
Holtzmann.  H.  J..  192. 
Holtzmann,  O.,  191. 
Hooker,  Richard,  130,  133. 
Hopkins,  Samuel,  173. 
Hore,  196. 
Hort,  190. 
Hosiiis,  139. 
Hospinian,  121. 
Hottinger,  Johann  Helnrlch,  120, 

165. 
Hottinger,  Johann  Jacob,  165. 
Houbigant,  149. 
Huber,  215. 
Huetlus,  147. 
Hligel.  F.  v.,  195. 
Hugh  of  Oluny.  18. 
Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  35,  54,  215. 
Hughes.  T.,  217. 
Hupfeld.  189,  190. 
Hurst,  189,  194,  195. 
Hurter,  195. 
Huss,  Jolm,  72  /..  79  /. 
Hyperius,  Andreas,  113/. 

Ignatius  Loyola,  105/.,  128, 135/., 

145/.,  217. 
Innocent  IV,  46,  48. 
Imerius,  40  /. 
Isidore  of  SevUle,  6. 
Ivo  of  Chartres,  24,  25  /.,  41. 

JablonskJ,  164. 

3a.m.  194. 

Jager  (Crotus  Rubeanus),  99. 

James  II  of  England,  144. 

Jameson,  194. 

Jansen,  Cornelius,  150. 

Janssen,  198. 

Jennings,  Jolin,  175. 

Jeremiah  of  Constantinople,  140/. 


Jerome,  St.,  97,  148. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  73,  86. 

Jerusalem,  180. 

Jesus  Christ,  93,  107  /.,  117,  148. 

186. 
John  of  Damascus,  51. 
John  of  Lancaster,  71. 
John  of  Parma,  54. 
John  of  RocheUe,  52,  54. 
John  of  St.  GUes,  52. 
John  of  Salisbury,  19,  22  /.,  26  /., 

33,  36  /. 
John  the  Baptist,  86,  110. 
John  XXII,  63. 
John  XXIII,  79. 

Jon,  Frangois  du  (Jxmlus),  129, 155. 
Jonas,  Justus,  109,  111,  113. 
Jordaens,  69. 
Judae,  Leo,  119  /. 
Justinianus  (Bishop),  103. 

Kaftan,  198. 

Kahnis,  198. 

Kalisch.  190. 

KalliupoUtes,  142. 

Kampschulte,  F.  W.,  215. 

Kant,  Immanuel,  179,  185. 

Karyophylles,  142. 

Kattenbusch,  200. 

Kaufmann.  G.,  214.  215. 

Kautzsch,  189. 

Keil,  190,  191. 

Keun,  191. 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  70,  169. 

Kennicott,  180. 

Kepler,  161. 

Kidd,  108. 

Kienlen,  189. 

Kihn.  147,  188  /.,  194,  213. 

Killen,  196. 

Kimmel,  200. 

Kingsley,  C,  213. 

Kim.  108,  113. 

Kittel,  190. 

Klee,  188.  199. 

Klener,  200. 

Klostermann,  190. 

Knobel,  190. 

Knox,  G.  W.,  199. 

Knox,  John,  129,  131  /. 

Koch,  216. 

Koelmann,  167,  170. 

Konig,  189. 

Konopios,  142. 

Koppe,  180. 

Kosegarten,  216. 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  II 


225 


Kraus,  P.  X..  194.  213. 
Krauss,  A.,  201. 
Krtiger,  195. 
Krumbacher,  195. 
Kuenen,  192. 
Kuyper,  189 

Labadie,  Jean  de,  167. 

Labbg.  147. 

Lachmann,  190. 

Lagarde.  P.  de  (Botticher),  190. 

Lainez,  135. 

Lambert,  Francois,  113. 

Lanfranc,  19  /.,  21  /.,  24,  26. 

Lange,  J.  P.,  188. 

Langen,  Rudolf  von,  90. 

Lanigan,  196. 

Lapide,  Cornelius  a,  147. 

Lasco,  Johannes  5,  117,  133. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  133. 

Latimer,  William,  99. 

Latrie,  194. 

Lattebur,  John,  76. 

Launol,  Jean  de,  149. 

Law.  William,  169. 

Lechler,  191,  197. 

Lee,  W.,  135. 

Lehmlaihl,  199. 

Leibnitz,  143,  146,  162,  164/..  177. 

Leigh,  Edward,  153. 

Lenormant,  191. 

Leo  IV,  11. 

Leo  IX,  17  /. 

Lesne,  13. 

Letoumeau,  218. 

Le\ita,  Elias,  123,  159. 

Lightfoot,  John,  152. 

Lightfoot,  J.  B.,  194. 

Liguori,  Alfonso  Maria  di,  151. 

LInacre,  99,  100.  102. 

Lindsay,  99,  155. 

Lipsius,  194. 

Littledale,  195. 

Locke,  John,  146.  162.  163.  174. 

Lohe,  110. 

Loisy,  191. 

Loofs.  13,  193,  196. 

Lorimer,  133,  134. 

Loserth,  72,  73. 

Lothair  I,  11. 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  63. 

Louis  the  Pious,  4,  8  /.,  10. 

Louis  IX.  53. 

Loius  XIV,  139,  144,  161. 

Lowth,  Robert,  157.  180. 

Lubke,  194. 


Ludolph  of  Saxony,  74,  75. 

Lugo  (Cardinal)  De,  146  /. 

Lully,  Raymond,  65  /. 

Lupus,  Servatus,  7. 

Luthardt,  198. 

Luther,  Martin,  20,  63,  68  /..  75, 

86,  88,  93,  96,  99,  101,  103,  105. 

106  /..  117  /.,  120.  122  /.,  126, 

129,  169,  198,  216. 
Lyra,  Nicolaus  de,  74  /. 

Mabillon,  13.  148,  194. 

M'Clintock.  189. 

M'Cracken,  195. 

M'Curdy,  191. 

M'Giflert,  195,  197. 

M'Lean,  190. 

Maimbourg,  147. 

Maltre,  1,  9,  19  /.,  24,  29,  214. 

Maldonatus,  137. 

Manegold,  28. 

Mansi,  150. 

Map,  Walter,  45. 

Maranus,  Prudentlus,  148. 

Marhehiecke,  198,  200. 

Marsh,  f  Adam,  47,  52,  57. 

MarshaU,  Stephen,  152  /. 

Martdne,  Edmond,  148. 

Martensen,  198,  199. 

Martianay,  148. 

Martign6,  59. 

Martigny,  194. 

Martin  of  Tours,  14. 

Martin  V.  79. 

Martm,  E.,  189. 

Marucchl,  194. 

Mary  of  England,  120. 

Masius,  126. 

Massillon,  149. 

Matter,  214. 

Matthesius,  111. 

Matthew  of  Paris,  51. 

Maur,  St.,  5. 

Maximos  Margvmias,  141. 

Mayronls,  Franciscus  do,  64. 

Meiners,  216. 

Melanchthon,  69,  97,  100,  105  /., 

118,  120,  122/.,  129,  136,  163. 

216. 
Meletius  Syriga,  141. 
MelvUle,  Andrew,  153,  158. 
Menocliius,  147. 
Merle  D'Aubignfi,  197. 
Merlm,  127. 
MerriU,  192. 
Merton,  Walter  de,  46. 


226 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  H 


Metrophanes  Critopiilus,  142. 
Meyer,  P.,  70.  141. 
Michael  of  Cesena,  62. 
Michaelis,  Christian  Benedict, 

178. 
Michaelis,    Johann    David,    178, 

180/. 
Michaelis,  Johann  Heinrich,  178. 
Michaud,  E.,  214. 
Middleton,  Richard,  58  /. 
Miley.  199. 

Mill,  John,  155,  168,  180. 
Milman,  196. 
Milton,  John,  152. 
Mirbt,  195. 
MitcheU,  A.  F.,  196. 
Moehler,  J.  A.,  193.  200. 
Moeller,  E.  W.,  197. 
Mogilas,  Petrus,  140  /. 
Molanus,  164. 
Molinos,  151. 
Montalembert,  196. 
Montanus,  Arius,  126. 
Montfaucon,  148. 
Montgomery,  174. 
Montreuil,  Jean  de,  94. 
Moore,  G.  F..  214. 
More,  Henry,  166. 
More,  Thomas,  91  /.,  95,  99  /., 

105. 
Morin,  Jean,  149. 
Mosheim,  178,  181,  182. 
Moulin,  Pierre  du,  158. 
Miiller,  E.  F.  K.,  115,  200. 
Miiller,  Jiilius,  186,  196,  198. 
Miiller.  J.  T.,  200. 
Muller.  Karl,  13,  193. 
Mullinger,  2,  4,  9,  63,  214,  215. 
Miinster,  Sebastian,  116. 
Mnratori,  150. 
Mursinna,  180,  188. 
Musaeus,  164. 

Muscnlus  (Muesslin),  123. ' 
Muth,  Conrad,  96,  99. 
Muther,  216. 
Myconlus,  Oswald,  116,  118,  120. 

Napier,  161. 

Napoleon,  203,  204. 

Natalis,  Alexander,  13,  149. 

Neal,  D.,  195. 

Neale.  J.  M.,  195,  196. 

Neander,  186,  191,  192  /.,  196  /., 

199/. 
Nestle,  190. 
Nevrman,  J.  H.,  195. 


Nicephorus,  16. 
Nicholas  of  Hereford,  71. 
Nicholas  of  Methone,  39. 
Nicholas  of  Strasbm-g,  68. 
Nichols,  90,  93,  95,  97/.,  102,  110, 

123. 
Nicolaus  I,  13. 
Nicolaus  III,  58. 
Nicolaus  IV,  58. 
Nicolaus  V,  79,  88. 
Nicole,  Pierre,  150. 
Niebuhr,  192. 
Niedner,  193. 
Nielson,  195. 
Niemeyer,  200. 
Nitzsch,  K.  I.,  195,  200,  201. 
Noailles,  L.  A.  De,  150. 
Nordheimer,  189. 
Nourry,  D.  N.  Le,  148. 
Nowack,  191. 

Occhlno,  Bernardino,  120,  133. 
Odo  of  Cluny,  14. 
(Ecolampadius,   102,   110,   115  /., 

120,  123,  127. 
CEcimienius,  16. 
Oehler.  192. 
O'Hanlon,  195. 
Olevianus,  Caspar,  114. 
Olevitan,  95. 
Oosterzee,  J.  Van,  201. 
Origen,  12,  147,  148. 
Orosius,  12. 

Osiander,  Andreas,  114. 
Osiander,  Lucas,  114. 
Osterwald  of  Neuchatel,  164  /. 
Otto  of  Freising,  30  /. 
Otto  the  Great,  15. 
Owen,  John,  153. 

Pachtler,  145,  217. 
Pagninus,  Santes,  126. 
Painter,  108,  216. 
Paley,  181. 
Palfrey,  172. 
Palmer,  E.  H.,  192. 
Palmer,  Herbert,  152  /. 
Pareau,  189. 
Parker,  J.,  215. 
Parker,  Matthew,  133. 
Pascal,  Blaise,  150. 
Pastor,  195. 

Paul  the  Apostle,  83,  110. 
Paul  the  Deacon,  1  /. 
Paulsen.  Ill,  136,  143.  145,  162, 
179,  216. 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  II 


227 


Paulus  Burgensis,  76. 

Pearson,  John,  154. 

Pearson,  K.,  96,  97. 

Pellican,  118,  119,  120. 

Pelt,  A.  F.  L.,  188. 

Pepo  of  Bologna,  41. 

Perkins.  William,  152  /.,  156. 

Perowne,  J.  J.  S..  190. 

Perrone,  G.,  198. 

Petavius,  147. 

Peter  Comestor,  34. 

Peter  Lombard,  31  /.,  36,  49,  53  /., 

56,  59,  61,  74,  77,  79,  83,  107, 

130. 
Peter  of  Pisa,  1. 
Peter  of  Poitiers,  34.  36,  43. 
Peter  the  Venerable,  31. 
Petrarch,  85,  97. 
Pfaff,  182. 
Pfleiderer,  68.  198. 
PliiUp  of  Neri,  149. 
Philippi,  F.  A.,  198. 
Photius  of  Constantinople,  16,  39. 
Piccolomini,    ^Eneas    Sylvius    de 

(Pius  II),  95. 
Pictet,  Benedict,  165. 
Pierce,  James,  176. 
Piper,  K.  W.  F.,  194.  195. 
PLscator,  115. 
Pitra,  195. 
Pius  X,  205. 

Placeus  (De  la  Place),  159. 
Planck,  A.,  217. 
Planck,  G.  J.,  13,  180,  200. 
Plato,  38,  86,  87,  100,  102. 
Plethon,  Gemistos,  87. 
putt,  200. 

Plimmier,  A.,  100,  190,  196. 
Pococke,  Edward,  155,  157. 
Pole.  Reginald,  138. 
Poole,  Matthew,  153. 
Poole,  R.  L.,  4,  15,  19/.,  23,  26/.. 

29  /.,  33,  37,  215. 
Pope,  W.  B.,  199. 
Porphyry,  62. 
Porta,  C,  217. 
Porter,  191. 
Possevln,  151. 
Potthast,  195. 
Prantl,  216. 
Pratensis,  Felix,  103. 
Preger,  88. 
Pressense,  197. 

Prideaux,  Humphrey,  155,  181. 
Ptolemy,  28. 
Pulleyn,  Robert,  31  /.,  36  /.,  45. 


Purvey,  John,  71. 
Putnam,  5. 

Quesnel,  Paschasius,  150. 
Quintihan,  27. 

Rabanus  Maurus,  4  /. 
Rabiger,  188. 

Radbertus,  Paschasius,  6,  8,  21. 
Radewyns,  Florentius,  90. 
Raimund  of  Aurillac,  14. 
Ralph  of  Laon,  22  /..  32. 
Ramsay,  W.  M.,  192. 
Ramus,  Petrus,  121,  153. 
Ranke,  L.  von,  110,  195. 
Raphael,  Cardinal  of  St.  George, 

98. 
RashdaU,  41  /.,  77  /.,  80.  215. 
Ratichius,  161. 
Ratramnus  of  Corbie,  8,  21. 
Raymond,  M.,  199. 
Raynaldus,  181. 
Rebit,  127. 
Regiomontanus,  95  /. 
Reland,  181,  191. 
Remi  of  Auxerre,  14. 
Renan,  85,  191. 
I^enaudot,  149. 
Reuchlin,  John,  87,  90,  92,  95  /., 

98,  101,  105,  110,  112,  117,  120. 
Reuss,  190. 
Reuterdahl,  196. 
Revliis,  Jacob,  156. 
Reynolds,  Edward,  153. 
Reynolds,  John,  153. 
Rhegius,  Urbanus,  116  /. 
Rich,  Edmund,  57. 
Richard  I'Eveque,  26,  27,  36  /. 
Richard  of  Canterbury,  38. 
Richard  of  Devizes,  45. 
Richard  of  St.  Victor,  35  /.,  54, 

115. 
Richer  of  Rheims,  15. 
Richer,  E.,  50,  149. 
Richter,  195. 
Ridgley,  Thomas,  175. 
Ridley,  Nicholas,  133. 
Riehm,  192. 

Ritschl,  A.,  191.  193,  198. 
Ritter,  Carl,  191. 
Rivetus,  Andreas,  156. 
Robert  de  Courgon,  44. 
Robert  of  Lincoln   (Grosseteste), 

47,  50  /.,  57. 
Robert  of  Melim,  36  /. 
Robert,  G.,  214. 


228 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  11 


Robertson,  193. 

Robinson,  Edward,  189.  190,  191. 

Robinson,  J.  A.,  195. 

Rodiger,  189. 

Rogers,  John,  132,  133. 

Rogers,  Thorold,  78. 

Roland  of  Cremona,  52. 

Romuald  of  Ravenna,  19. 

Roscelin  of  Complegne,  28  /. 

Roscoe,  195. 

Rosenkranz,  188. 

Rossi,  G.  B.  De,  194. 

Rothe,  186,  188,  198,  199. 

Ruseus  (De  la  Rue),  148. 

Ruckert,  O..  217. 

Rudolphus  of  Fulda,  7. 

Ruflnus,  123. 

Ruinart,  148. 

Rutherford,  Samuel,  154. 

Ruysbroeck,  John,  67,  69. 

Saalschiitz,  191. 

Sabatier,  Paul,  195. 

Sadoleto,  126. 

SaUer,  199,  201. 

Sanchez,  146. 

Sandys,  7,  11,  27  /.,  38,  47.  51  /., 

66/.,   63/.,  85,  87/.,  95  /.,  99. 

102,  153,  163,  213, 
Saulcy,  F.  De,  191. 
Savonarola,  85  /.,  120. 
Scaliger,  131,  149,  155,  156,  160. 
Scavinl,  199. 
Schaflf,  6,  17  /..  20,  54  /.,  68  /., 

73.  81,  86,  99/.,  109,  112.  117/., 

131,  182.  189,  193,  200. 
Scheeben,  198. 
Schelling,  185. 
Schleiermacher,  186,  188. 
Schmid,  C.  F.,  192. 
Schmid,  H.,  198. 
Schmid,  J.  W.,  185. 
Sclnnidt,  C.  G.  A..  197. 
Sclunidt,  H.,  200. 
Sclmaitz-Kallenberg,  148. 
Schneckenburger,  191. 
Scholz,  190. 
Schrader,  191. 
Schrock,  181. 
Schuckford,  181. 
Schulte,  42,  195. 
Schultze,  194. 
Schiirer,  191. 
Scliwane,  196,  199. 
Schweizer,  198. 
Scrivener,  190. 


Seeberg,  55,  62,  63,  66,  196. 
Seitz,  K.,  214. 
SelUng,  William,  100. 
Sender,  178,  181. 
Seneca,  58. 
Sepp,  192. 
Sharp,  John,  159. 
Shedd,  W.  G.  T.,  199. 
Sickingen,  Franz  von,  116. 
Siebengartner,  140,  213. 
Simeon  Metaphrastes,  16. 
Simeon  of  Thessalonica,  70  / 
Simon  of  Poissy,  36  /. 
Simon  de  Tournai,  43. 
Simon,  D.  W.,  187. 
Simon,  Richard,  149. 
Simson,  John,  176. 
Sirmond,  147. 
Sixtus  IV,  42. 
Sixtus  V,  55. 
Sixtus  of  Siena,  126. 
Smend,  192. 
Smith,  George,  191. 
Smith,  George  Adam,  192. 
Smith,  H.  B.,  193.  194,  199. 
Smith,  John,  166. 
Smith,  WilUam,  194  /. 
Smith,  W.  Robertson.  191. 
Smythe,  Newman,  199. 
Socin,  192. 
Socinus,  Laelius,  120. 
Socrates,  24,  73,  93. 
Sohm,  195. 

Sorbonne.  Robert  de,  50. 
Soto,  Domlnico,  126. 
Sozomen,  123. 
Spannheim,  181. 
Specht,  214. 
Spener,  167. 
Spinola,  164. 
Spinoza,  162. 
Spittler,  13. 
Sprvmer,  194. 
Stackhouse,  181. 
Stade,  189. 

Stanley,  190,  192,  196. 
Staudenmaier,  188. 
Staudlin,  185,  194. 
Staupitz,  99. 
Steinhuber,  217. 
Stephen,  W.,  196. 
Stephens,  Robert.  103.  131. 
Stemgasser,  Johann,  68. 
Stevens,  G.  B.,  192, 
Stevenson,  51. 
Stocker,  216. 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  II 


229 


Strack,  H.  L..  190. 
Strauss,  191,  198. 
Streitwolf.  200. 
Strong,  A.  H..  199. 
Stubbs,  W.,  195,  196,  197. 
Sturm,  John.  97,  121  /. 
Suarez,  146. 
Suicer,  165. 
Suidas,  16. 
Siiso,  Henry,  67  /. 
Swainson,  195. 
Swete.  190. 

Tauler,  John,  67  /. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  152,  154,  169. 

Taylor,    John,    of  Norwich,  157, 

174. 
Tennent,  Gilbert,  170  /. 
Tennent,  William,  170  /. 
Thayer.  190. 

Themer.  13.  181.  213,  218. 
Themistor,  218. 
Theobald  of  Canterbury,  37. 
Theobaldus  Stampensis,  45. 
Theodore  of  Gaza,  87,  97. 
Theodoret  of  Cyrrhus,  38. 
Theodoric  of  Chartres,  26. 
Theodulphus  of  Orleans,  9. 
Theophanes.  16. 
Theophylact  of  Achrida,  38. 
Tholuck,  186.  198. 
Thomas  "Wallensis,  57. 
Thomasius.  C.  177. 
Thomasius,  G..  198. 
Thomassin,  L.,  149. 
Thomson,  W.  M..  192. 
Thorbecke.  216. 
Thorpe,  72. 
Tief trunk,  185. 
Tiele,  191. 

Tifemas,  Gregorio,  94. 
Tilenus,  Daniel,  158. 
TiUemont,  Le  Nain  de,  150. 
Tischendorf.  190. 
Tobler,  191. 
Toletus.  137. 

Torquemada  (Turrecremata) ,  67, 
Tostatus,  Alphonsus,  75  /. 
Toy,  C.  H.,  192. 
Travers.  153. 
Tregelles,  190. 
Trench,  R.  C,  197. 
Tristram,  192. 
Trithemius,  81.  96,  97/. 
Trimibull,  192. 
Tuckney,  Anthony,  152  /.,  166. 


Tunstall.  92. 

Turmel,  194. 

Turretin,  Frangois,  164  /. 

Turretin,  Joan  Alphonse,  104  /. 

Twoston.  198. 

T>-ndale.  101,  131  /. 

Ueberweg.  53. 

UgoUno.  150. 

Uhlhom.  196. 

Ullmann,  191.  198. 

Uhich  von  Hutten.  96.  99. 

Urban  IV.  52. 

Urban  VI.  78. 

Ursinus,  Zacharias,  114. 

Ussher.  James.  153.  181,  198. 

Uytenbogaert,  156. 

Vacherot,  E.,  214. 

Valdes,  Juan  de,  120. 

Valesius,  147. 

Valla,  Laurentius,  76,  87  /. 

Vasquez.  138. 

Vater.  J.  S..  190. 

Vatke.  W..  190. 

VermigU,  Pietro  Martlre.  118  /. 

120  /..  133.  152. 
Vincent  of  Beauvais.  50.  53. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  139. 
Viret,  Pierre,  127.  158. 
Vischer,  W..  216. 
Vitringa.  157. 
Vittoria,  Francisco,  126. 
Voetius,  G.,  156. 
Voss,  G.  J.,  156. 

Wace,  H.,  195. 
Waelmer.  181. 
Wagenmann,  87. 
Wake.  W.  (Archbishop).  165. 
Wala  of  Corbie,  7  /. 
Walch,  C.  W.  F..  182. 
Walch,  J.  G.,  182. 
Walter  of  St.  Victor,  35  /. 
Walther,  F.  C,  195. 
Walton,  Brian,  154. 
Warham  of  Canterbury,  102. 
Watson,  Richard,  199. 
Wattenbach,  194. 
Watts.  Isaac.  174. 
Weingarten,  194. 
Weiss.  190.  191. 
Weissenbom,  200. 
Weller,  Hieronj-mus,  217. 
Wellhausen,  190. 
Wendt,  191.  192. 


230 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  II 


Werenfels,  Peter  of  Basel,  165. 
Werenfels,  Samuel  of  Ba^sel,  164  /. 
Werner,  K.,  194. 
Wesley,  Charles,  170. 
Wesley,  John,  157,  168  /. 
Wessel,  John,  90,  98. 
Westcott,  190. 
Wetstein,  J.  J.,  180. 
Wette,  W.  M.  L.  De,  190. 
Wetzstein,  J.  G.,  192. 
Whichcote,  Benjamin,  166. 
Whiston,  William,  176. 
Whitby,  Daniel,  157. 
Whitefleld,  George,  168,  170. 
Wieseler,  192. 
WilUam  of  Aqultaine,  14. 
William  of  Champeaux,  22,  28  /., 

32/. 
William  of  Conches,  26  /.,  36. 
William  of  Durham,  46. 
WiUiam  of  Malmesbury,  25. 
WilUam  of  Occam,  62  /.,  83. 
William  of  Orange,  155. 
William  of  St.  Thierry,  19. 
WUpert,  194. 
Wiltsch,  194. 

Wimpfeling,  Jacob,  96,  97,  112. 
Winer,  J.  G.  B.,  189,  195,  200. 
Wirtmtiller,  188. 
Wishart,  George,  134  /. 
Witsius,  Hermann,  157. 


Witzcl,  George,  124  /. 

Wolf,  F.  A.,  187. 

Wolf,  J.  C,  182. 

Wolflf,  Christian,  177,  179,  182. 

Wolsey,  Cardinal,  101,  102. 

Woodward,  W.  A.,  93,  217. 

Woolsey,  T.  D.,  172. 

Wordsworth,  Christopher,  197. 

Wordsworth,  John,  190,  195. 

Wright,  W.,  59. 

Wulftn  of  Orleans,  9. ' 

Wuttke,  199. 

WycUf,  51,  71  /.,  75,  132. 

Wyttenbach,  Thomas.  117,  119. 

Xavier,  135. 

Ximenes,  103,  125  /.,  136. 

Zacharia  of  Halle,  181. 
Zahn,  194. 

Zamora,  Alphonso  de,  125. 
Zanchi,  120. 
Zell,  M.,  122. 

Zezschwitz,  K.  A.  G.  von,  201. 
Zinzendorf,  167,  168. 
Zockler,  65. 
Zonaras,  Johannes,  39. 
Zschokke,  218. 
Zwickenpflug,  218. 
ZwingU,  103,  105.  107,  110,  113. 
116,  117  /..  122  /. 


Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


1    1012  01092  4167 


Date  Due 

1 

■ 

^T,..   , 

JE3-'54 

,„.««*#*«"***** 

^ 

) 

it^mmm- 

wmtmifiiif''^ 

^tumems^- 

^ 

